What are Rousseau's main works?

Rousseau (17 12- 1778), a French educator, is a representative figure of nature education thought. His main works are: On the Origin and Foundation of Human Inequality (1755), On Social Contract (1762), Emile (1762) and so on.

(A) Education should conform to nature

Rousseau believes that the core of nature education is that education must follow nature and conform to human nature. As soon as he opened the book Emile, he wrote, "Everything that comes from the creator is good, but once it reaches people, it will go bad." "If you want to walk in the right direction forever, you must always follow the guidance of nature." Therefore, Rousseau opposes the traditional classical education that ignores children's characteristics, interferes with and restricts children's free development and goes against children's nature, and puts forward the idea that education should conform to nature.

In Rousseau's view, human education has three sources, either "from nature", "from people" or "from things". He said, "Our talent and the internal development of organs are a kind of natural education; It is human education, and others teach us how to make use of this development; We get a good experience in things that affect us. This is the education of things. " These three aspects of education are interrelated. If these three different kinds of education conflict with each other in a person, his education is not good; If these three aspects of education are consistent and tend to the same goal, he can get a good education, realize his own goals and live a meaningful life. Rousseau further analyzed and said: "In these three different kinds of education, natural education can't be decided by me at all;" In the education of things, people can be decided by us in some aspects; Only human education can be truly controlled by us. "Therefore, we should take the education of nature as the center, make the education of things and people subordinate to the education of nature, make these three aspects of education match and tend to be natural, and let children enjoy a good education.

Rousseau's "nature" refers to human talents and organs, that is, human nature. Therefore, "natural education" is an education that obeys the laws of nature, conforms to the development process of children's nature and promotes the natural development of children's body and mind. Rousseau emphasized: "naturally, children want to look like children before they reach adulthood." In his view, if we interfere with the prejudice of adults and deprive children of their due rights, the result will only disturb the natural order, destroy the laws of nature and fundamentally destroy children.

Rousseau believes that education that conforms to nature must also be free education, because the most important natural right of human beings is freedom. Rousseau declared: "A truly free man only wants what he can get and only does what he likes. This is my first basic principle. As long as this principle is applied to children, various educational principles can be derived. " Therefore, he demanded that children's freedom should be respected, that children should enjoy the possibility and conditions of full free activities, and that natural and free teaching methods should be adopted in the teaching process to adapt to children's physical and mental development level and individual differences.

(2) Education should cultivate "natural persons"

Rousseau believes that the purpose of nature education is to cultivate "natural people", that is, a new generation of people who are completely free to grow up, physically and mentally harmonious, self-reliant, "not bound by tradition and able to adapt to social life." This kind of "natural person" has been trained to be as independent as possible since childhood. He has neither the habit of turning to others forever nor the habit of boasting to others. Able to observe, judge, think and analyze things independently; Growing up, I learned a lot from nature, not from people; Physical and mental exercise at the same time, not only physically strong, but also intelligent and knowledgeable. This kind of "natural person" is a natural person living in society, a member of society who can fulfill social responsibilities, not an uneducated person who returns to primitive society, nor a savage who is divorced from reality.

It should be noted that Rousseau's "natural person" has the following characteristics: first, it is not bound by tradition (rank, stage and occupation) and develops according to its nature; Second, independence, self-improvement and independence; Third, it has social adaptability and can bear social responsibility; Fourth, physical and mental development, physical and mental health, with the ability to think independently.

(C) Education should pay attention to people's age characteristics

Rousseau emphasized that education should pay attention to children's age characteristics from the principle that education should conform to nature and the purpose of education should cultivate "natural persons". According to the age stage, Rousseau proposed that education in different periods is different.

1, infancy, mainly sports. During this period, the main task of education is to promote the healthy development of children's bodies. Because a healthy body is the foundation of wisdom and the condition for children to receive natural education. Rousseau advocated that babies should grow naturally in rural environment and pay attention to their natural choice of food. He opposed to binding babies with swaddling clothes, and even more opposed to pampering them, pointing out that "their physique should be exercised so that they can endure cruel seasons, climate, wind and rain, hunger and fatigue".

2. In childhood, we mainly carry out sensory education. During this period, children's physical activity ability, language ability and sensory ability have developed, but it is not suitable for education of abstract concepts and written knowledge. It is necessary to guide children to exercise and develop various sensory organs, accumulate rich sensory experience, and lay the foundation for the next stage of learning. Rousseau pointed out in sensory education that the first thing is to develop the sense of touch, the second is to develop vision, and the last is to develop hearing. Rousseau put forward the concrete methods of feeling, and regarded games, painting, singing and other activities as the best way of feeling education. In addition, it is suggested to strengthen children's physical exercise and promote the development of sensory ability.

Since children's minds are still asleep, don't force them to study. Rousseau believes that reading is useless to children when they don't like reading at all. Children would rather not know a word than sacrifice other useful things to learn some knowledge.

In disciplinary education, Rousseau opposed corporal punishment and disapproved of oral preaching. He suggested that when children make mistakes, they don't have to stop or punish them directly, but let them feel the natural consequences of their mistakes and mistakes in contact with nature. This is the famous law of human natural consequences in the history of education. "

3. In adolescence, it is mainly intellectual education and labor education. Because children have received good physical education and sensory education, they have the conditions for intellectual education and labor education.

Rousseau believes that the task of intellectual education is not to impart systematic scientific knowledge, but to cultivate children's ability to acquire knowledge and stimulate their interest and enthusiasm for what they have learned. Children can't learn everything, they just need to learn what they should. He said: "There is very little knowledge that is really beneficial to our happiness, but only such knowledge is worthy of a smart person, and thus a child to seek, because our purpose is to cultivate him into such a smart person. In short, the question is not what kind of knowledge he has learned, but that what he has learned should be useful. " In terms of intellectual education methods, Rousseau advocates that children can acquire knowledge in nature through field observation; It is strongly opposed to letting children master book knowledge by rote, and even puts forward that "the world is the only book and the fact is the only teaching material". He also pointed out that adults should give children less guidance instead of teaching them correct answers, and should let them get them by themselves and guide them to solve problems independently.

Rousseau also attached great importance to labor and labor education. He pointed out that labor is the social obligation of every free man, and only those who live by labor are truly free men; The task of labor education is to make children adapt to various tools and related technologies and exercise and develop people's minds through labor study. Rousseau respects manual labor most, and thinks that manual labor is the freest, the closest to the natural state, the most independent and not bound by others. In short, Rousseau hopes that children can "work like farmers and think like philosophers"

4. In adolescence, moral education is mainly carried out. Because young people are in the stage of excitement and enthusiasm, they need the power of moral standards to adjust and guide them to handle the relationship between people and society and between people. The main content of moral education is to cultivate good emotion, correct judgment and strong will. Rousseau pointed out that children's firm will should be cultivated through all kinds of good deeds, that is, through moral practice. At the same time, he pointed out that moral education should be carried out in cities.

Montesquieu-encyclopedia of modern law

Brief evaluation: His theory of legal spirit connects rationalism in the18th century with historicism in the19th century, and his theory of regime and separation of powers are the theoretical cornerstones of modern constitutionalism.

/kloc-French enlightenment thinker and sociologist in the first half of the 0/8th century. Founder of bourgeois state theory and legal theory, one of the pioneers of French bourgeois revolution. 1689 65438+ 10/8 was born in a noble family,1755 February 10 died in Paris. He used to be a lawyer and the Speaker of Bordeaux Parliament. 1728, made academic visits to Austria, Hungary, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Britain and other countries, and made on-the-spot investigations on their social and political systems. 173 1 After returning to China, I devoted myself to writing.

He is an encyclopedic scholar. He has made great academic achievements and won high honors. He was elected as a member of the Bordeaux Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society of England and the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin. His main works are: Persian Letters, On the Reasons for the Rise and Fall of Rome, and On the Spirit of Law.

Montesquieu is a deist. He openly admits that God is the origin of the world and thinks that God is the "creator and defender" of the world, but he also thinks that the world is dominated by natural laws, and God cannot change them, so its activities are also restricted by natural laws. Under the cover of deism, he exposed and criticized the shameless crimes of the Catholic Church and monks, pointed out the harm of religious world outlook to human society, lashed out at the cruel behavior of the Inquisition in persecuting pagans, and put forward the idea that religions should tolerate each other, live in harmony, interfere with each other and respect each other.

Montesquieu is an idealist in the view of social history, who believes that the fate of human history depends on the will of individual political activists (mainly legislators). He particularly emphasized the role of geographical factors in the development of human society, and believed that geographical environment, especially the size of climate, soil and living area, had a decisive influence on a nation's character, customs, morality, mental outlook, legal nature and political system. Although his geographical environment determinism is wrong, it has the nature of anti-religious theology. It tries to prove that the historical development process of society is not determined by God's will, but by nature itself.

From the standpoint of the emerging bourgeoisie, Montesquieu mercilessly exposed and profoundly criticized feudal absolutism, and advocated social reform, the establishment of a monarchy headed by an "enlightened monarch", that is, the constitutional monarchy, and the separation of powers, so as to limit the power of the monarch and deprive the monarch and his government of the power to interfere in judicial affairs, thus ensuring the people's political freedom and the safety of life and property.

Montesquieu's social and political theory, especially the theory of decentralization and the rule of law, had a great and far-reaching influence on the French bourgeois revolution in the18th century and the bourgeois revolutionary movements in other countries, and also had a great influence on the bourgeois reformists in China.

Hobbes

Nationality: Netherlands

Year: 1583 to 1645.

Faction: natural law

Works: freedom of the sea, law of war and peace

Main viewpoints: State theory based on natural law and social contract theory; Deduction of international law relations by natural law; Advocate that sovereignty lies with the monarch.

Hobbes' thought of natural law is based on the theory of evil nature, and natural law is a universal law based on rationality, which is used to prohibit people from destroying themselves or giving up the means of saving lives.

In terms of sovereignty, Hobbes believes that sovereignty belongs to the monarch, and that the power of the monarch is not limited by law, nor by laws made by himself. Different from Montesquieu's idea of decentralization, Hobbes believes that all the powers that constitute sovereignty are unified and inseparable. He opposed the idea of separation of powers, and believed that if sovereignty was divided among several institutions, the state would be dysfunctional. He divided the country into three regimes: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, and thought that monarchy was the best because it could avoid civil strife. Hobbes advocated an extreme absolutism, and he developed Budan's theory of sovereign supremacy to the point where the monarch did not obey any authority. Most of Hobbes' works involve criminal law. He got the concept of crime from the difference and connection between crime and evil. He distinguished between "evil" which belongs to the moral category and crime which belongs to the legal category. As for the causes of crime, Hobbes believes that all crimes come from ignorance, fallacy, hatred, lust and greed, and vanity is the main cause of crime. Regarding the measurement of the severity of crimes, he believes that we should distinguish the severity of various crimes according to their causes, harmful consequences, time, place and nature, and refer to their causes, consequences, time, place and nature. He gave a clear definition of punishment: punishment is a kind of pain imposed by the rulers of the country on people who violate the law according to their actions and omissions in the prohibition and order of law, in order to let others know that people who violate the law will be punished and abide by the law. He divided punishment into two categories: divine punishment and human punishment. Hobbes is a loyal spokesman for the new big bourgeoisie in Britain and new noble. Although there are many repetitions, he is still a bourgeois enlightenment thinker and an anti-feudal fighter.

locke

Nationality: UK

Year: A.D. 1632- 1704

Faction: natural law

Works: Random talk about education, government and human understanding.

Main idea: The only legitimate source of state rights is the people.

John Locke (John Locke. 1632- 1704) is a famous British political thinker, educational thinker, empiricist philosopher and representative of classical natural law school in the 7th century. It plays a connecting role in the history of decentralization theory.

Locke believes that the state is established by signing a contract (actually a constitution) to protect its natural rights, and the only legal source of its rights is the people, whose function is to protect their natural rights. Once the ruler of any country violates the "contract" with the people and damages their natural rights, the people will enjoy the right of revolution-to overthrow the existing state ruler, conclude a new contract and establish a new ruler.