Dark countercurrent: what is the origin of liars and quacks?

Not all western civilizations are the products of the Enlightenment. As the historian Norman Hampton wrote ... if the Enlightenment was the product of18th century, then18th century was not the product of the Enlightenment. Superstition and mysticism are still popular in the life of18th century. Folktales, folk medicine, myths and witchcraft still dominate the minds of farmers and rural poor. Boasts, liars and quacks peddle in the bustling streets. In the official residences, palaces and mansions of nobles and celebrities, wealth and boredom grow simultaneously, which gives birth to the pursuit of novelty and eccentricity.

Newton's new worldview is disturbing. People refuse to accept a mechanical universe-only controlled by strict physical laws. Many people still stick to the church, but their confidence is not as good as before. There are many people who turn to the so-called comfort in the past-looking for a psychological safety net. Although harsh, there are reliable rules and rituals. /kloc-many intellectuals in the 0 th and 8 th centuries sought comfort from the so-called medieval romantic life, which was reflected in the noble knights and the legendary stories behind them.

* * * Secret societies such as Freemasonry and Rose Cross are becoming more and more mysterious in membership and daily ceremonies, and their members are constantly expanding. Many divided societies and schools have sprung up like mushrooms after rain in towns. They romantically treat King Arthur's knights, ancient alchemy secrets and "forgotten wisdom".

The era of Voltaire, Diderot and Franklin is also the era of Alessandro, Kontedkaliostro (1743- 1795), Swedenburg (1688- 1772) and mesmer (65438). This is an era in which scientific and rational thinkers and fortune tellers are mixed. Just as Stevenson and mesmer started their careers as scientists and died as mystics, Caliste and other swindlers, such as the so-called Saint-Germain, never boasted that they were thinking scientifically. Calliost and his colleagues are neither rational nor honest religious believers. They confuse their followers and cheat money from the credulous public to enrich themselves.

Calliost was born in Palermo about 1743. People believe that his original name is balsam, and historians call him the "great liar" of that era. He traveled around European capitals and dabbled in almost all mysterious tricks. He claimed that he could summon the dead in ancient Egypt from the grave, turn metal into gold, foresee the future, cure the sick, discover secret treasures, and like the mysterious Saint-Germain of his contemporaries, he might live forever-or at least three or four hundred years. Needless to say, he is willing to share his last special function with his rich and powerful followers. Of course it's expensive. However, the price is not a problem for those people, so the strange elixir prepared by Crystal herself has become the enjoyment of dignitaries in the gorgeous living room. Callisto is not a street vendor. He often does deceitful things in the court. Ironically, his downfall was related to a notorious cheating game involving a necklace of the Queen of France-which eventually led to his arrest and imprisonment.

Carriost's contemporaries, the Earl of Saint-Germain, were less famous. Like Callisto, he always targets the rich and elite in Europe. Many of his followers think that he is hundreds of years old, and Saint-Germain never denies such rumors. Once, someone asked his entourage, is Saint-Germain really 700 years old? The entourage replied that they didn't know because he had only been with Saint-Germain for 200 years. Like Callisto, Saint-Germain has also launched its own magic elixir, claiming to have the ability of healing and channeling. Many people say that he did find the philosopher's stone, which is the basic goal pursued by alchemists. They believe that this kind of stone can not only turn metal into gold, but also give human strength, wisdom and longevity.

Callisto and Count Saint-Germain both claim to be connected with the * * * Economic Association, or more precisely, with its senior mysterious backbone. Although these mysterious backbones do not necessarily exist in the aid society, mentioning them will help Calliost and Saint-Germain gain the trust of credulous people. For many people in the18th century, the * * * economic association represents a connection with the so-called mysterious things and their power in ancient mysterious past years.

The origin and activities of Swedenburg Aid Association are blurred by myths and legends. Some legends come from the * * * Economic Association itself, and some are imagined by writers and journalists in a romantic and touching way. However, there seems to be insufficient evidence to claim that aid to the society can be traced back to ancient Egypt or even earlier.

Historians have come to the conclusion that * * * Economic Association began in14th century, and it is a trade association of masons and builders, with the purpose of protecting the interests of the industry by establishing associations. The skill of masons is a valuable skill, especially in building towering monuments and cathedrals. Therefore, they appreciate their unique status and freedom and exclude lower-level workers from setting foot in this industry. Usually in the Middle Ages, they have participated in the architectural design of engineering and architecture, and it is necessary for them to protect trade secrets. And laymen, outsiders, impostors will ruin this skill, and will also make skilled workers suffer, because these people offer lower prices, but their skills are poor. In order to protect themselves from this kind of intrusion, masons use secret signs and symbols, so that they can recognize each other when they cooperate with strangers in strange places or when temporary skilled workers are needed for projects.

With the construction of the17th century cathedral drawing to a close, masons began to openly recruit members, but the membership fee was twice that of the usual members. Although the first participants were all privileged classes with money or social status, the * * * Economic Association emphasized the democratic consciousness that personal quality was higher than social status, which quickly attracted many free thinkers and intellectuals to participate. Due to the participation of these non-masons, the * * * Economic Association is no longer a craftsman's guild, but more of a social organization. But for many people in CARE, CARE is still an elite organization and knows many secrets that have been kept for a long time. Many people still believe that the secrets of these masons are not only the skills of masons, but also the mysterious and magical skills that alchemists and wizards have long sought.

Regrettably, while many local branches have become the centers of progressive democracy, many people have taken the opportunity to engage in alchemy, witchcraft and other activities. These clubs emphasize mystery and mysticism in their initiation ceremony and various activities to attract new members. By associating themselves with the esoteric skills of * * * aid agencies in the18th century, callisto, Saint-Germain and others used the guise of * * * aid agencies to embellish the mysterious legends related to * * * aid agencies.

In the18th century, many people were busy looking for a satisfactory spiritual system, whether religious, mysterious or hidden, hoping to transcend the depressing Newtonian mechanical universe. Although many philosophers, scientists and intellectuals are satisfied with taking a deistic attitude towards religion, others are still dissatisfied and seek a deeper and closer connection between life and the universe.

Swedenburg is such an explorer. He was born in Stockholm, Sweden on 1688. He was the son of a Swedish royal priest and later became a career consultant in the mining industry. As a scientist, he was highly respected, founded the first Swedish scientific journal and published a large number of papers on cosmology, chemistry, physics, physiology and psychology. For nearly two thirds of the time, Swedenburg was a persistent and prolific scientist. However, when he entered his seventies, he announced to the world that the Savior Jesus appeared to him in a dream and instructed him to give up scientific research and turn to religious revelation, which surprised many of his colleagues.

Swedenburg did this. In his long life, he wrote more than 30 books, revealing the secrets of God and heaven. Finally, it developed into a complex, sometimes self-contradictory, far from autonomy, often fantasy universe, a Swedenberg format universe. There is no doubt that Stevenson is sincere in nature (certainly not Callisto's liar), but his stories and adventures between angels and elves really shook many people who knew him. He claimed to have visited heaven and hell, talked face to face with God and visited the planets. He described the inhabitants of Venus. Some people are kind and kind, while others are cruel and terrible. He explained that the Moon Man is not bigger than a child, but he is as powerful and loud as Hong Zhong. He said that he had acquired the divine eye, psychic ability and special sensory perception, and he could remember the past scientific world. He even claimed to be able to talk to Newton's soul.

Is Swedenburg a madman or a harmless freak, or is he really a prophet? These questions are often asked, and many of his readers have to find the answers themselves. It is true that many people are confused and uneasy in the face of the changes brought about by the new ideas of the Enlightenment, but they have found comfort and help in Swedenburg's theology and the sects established on the basis of his spirituality and new Christianity. For many people today, his thoughts still exude the same charm.

Like Swedenburg, mesmer (1734- 18 15) was a scientist at first. But unlike Swedenburg, he called himself a scientist until his death, although many people disagreed with his self-evaluation.

Mesmer, 1734, was born in a small village in Iznan near Lake Constance. His father is a gamekeeper who serves the bishops of the Catholic Church. Little is known about mesmer's childhood, except that there are nine brothers and sisters in his family, and his mother obviously encouraged several of them to join the Catholic Church. Historical records show that at least one of them, named John, later became a Catholic priest. Mesmer ranked third, and began to receive education in schools run by local monks in 1743, and entered the Tillingen University in Bavaria in 1750. Here he studied philosophy for four years and had a special interest in Descartes. Then he transferred to Innstadt University to study theology under the guidance of Jesuits. After studying, he didn't want to go to church as a priest, and transferred to Vienna University to study law at 1759. A year later, 1760, he changed his direction again, this time in medicine. 1767, graduated from medical college at the age of 33.

I don't know when mesmer was fascinated by Parra Celsus's works. He wrote a paper in Latin called "Physical and Medical Research under the Influence of Planets". When he later mentioned this paper, he called it "the influence of planets on human body." This paper is deeply influenced by Pala Celsus's theory of the universe, trying to establish a connection between celestial influence and human health.

People have different opinions about when and where mesmer first came up with this idea that will change his life in the near future. It is known that in 1768, he married an extremely rich and sociable woman named Maria Anna von Bosch. She is Vimes Mayer, who is famous for hosting luxury parties and fashion salons. In these parties and salons, women in Vienna get together to discuss fashion topics. Mesmer has always been favored by the upper class, and quickly became the mainstream figure among the Viennese dignitaries after marriage. Among his friends are the Mozart family and their son, the precocious musical prodigy Wolfgang (1756- 179 1) (the family name is Wolfgang).

Once, mesmer talked with a rich patient. The patient told him that he had successfully cured the disease with a magnet before. This is the first time that his grotesque and suspicious theory of treating diseases with magnets is related to the cosmological theory he learned from Parra Celsus. Ever since Parra Celsus once said that he successfully sucked out diseases from patients with magnets, and then led these diseases to the ground, mesmer began to look for a theory that successfully combined his thoughts on the influence of planets on human health with the use of magnets in medical treatment.

As a result, his obscure and confusing "theory" was drawn out. His inference is that there may be some cosmic "magnetic fluid" or magnetic force that permeates the whole human body, just as there is a cosmic fluid that permeates the universe, thus making all celestial bodies perfect and harmonious. The disorder of this fluid causes diseases, but the regulation of the fluid can be realized by using magnetism to act on this invisible "fluid". Even then, it was a crazy idea, which was immediately resisted by contemporaries. But criticism will not stop mesmer. He decided that he was a scientist and began to treat patients with magnets.

Soon, mesmer began to claim that he had made some amazing successes, even more amazing discoveries, but he also announced that the magnet was not the real reason for the patient's miraculous recovery, but himself. He is convinced that the magnet is not a therapeutic tool, but only his conductor. The therapeutic effect comes from his unique "animal magnetism", which restores the patient's disordered "animal magnetism" to balance through magnet conduction.

Needless to say, not many doctors expressed enthusiasm for his new "discovery", although it attracted a large group of bored and dissatisfied social women into his home. Mesmer appeared, sharp-eyed and confident, with a condescending attitude in his majesty. He soon found that his waiting room was crowded with celebrities waiting for "treatment". There is only one requirement (except money) for his patients, that is, they must have complete and firm confidence in his ability. Mesmer declared that as long as he did this, he could cure anyone. This is an excessive commitment and will inevitably bring trouble. The trouble, and the collapse of mesmer in Vienna, was caused by a Parisian lady. This Miss Paris is blind.

The story itself is full of scandal and complexity. To make a long story short-mesmer's treatment failed. To make matters worse, he refused to take responsibility for his failure. Mesmer claimed that it was her own fault that Miss Paris couldn't see, and she didn't blame him. In this scandal, although some stupid followers supported mesmer, his business collapsed and he decided to move to a strange place in order to continue cheating.

The next stop is Paris. 1778, mesmer moved to a city on the Seine. This is the home of Voltaire, Descartes and Diderot. As if to prove itself to be an international metropolis, Paris also provides a refuge for weirdos, swindlers and impostors. Just one year before mesmer came to Paris, a secret organization named Illuminati set up its headquarters here. Other so-called secret societies, such as the Economic Association, continue to be active in this city full of unrestrained intellectuals and artistic atmosphere. This city is also the active place of Saint-Germain and Calioster, and mesmer will definitely have a place.

At first, business was very slow, but mesmer soon got the support of a rich man and business began to flourish. Soon, Dr. mesmer's talk and his strange new findings began to spread widely in the salon. "mesmer Doctrine" has become a fashion, and "animal magnetism" has become a topic in the luxurious living room. Quack is shrouded in aura and completely immersed in his role.

Many supporters of the new "scientific thinking" believe that science will throw superstition and witchcraft into the dustbin of history. They believe that in the face of science, which is famous for its rigor, all kinds of liars will disappear, false prophets, alchemists and fortune tellers will disappear, and scientific and reasonable thinking will prevail. Unfortunately, they underestimated the human need for miracles and surprises, and also underestimated that some people are so gullible, because these people are willing to believe that the world is best not to be bound by the laws of nature and physics.

It is reasonable for customers to gather around the magnetic bathtub in mesmer. It seems that the world is full of magic brought by science and technology, but many people are not good at distinguishing what is science and what is not. For many people, it doesn't matter. Miracles are miracles, and surprises are surprises. People will think, what is the difference between Franklin and others demonstrating the magic of electricity and Dr. mesmer's miracle and his amazing "animal magnetism"?

How did Dr. mesmer come out? He must have learned a lot in Paris. Wearing a flowing robe, those who don't believe in him look like liars, while those who believe in him look like real prophets. He raised his "sacred hand of charity" and walked among the patients.

In order to receive patients, mesmer divided his luxurious house into special wards. At the center of each ward is his famous bathtub, which he promises to be a real scientific instrument, but many people still find amazing. The bathtub is 4 feet in diameter and 1 foot deep, and there are some wine bottles filled with "magnetized water". Once the bottle is put away, the bathtub is filled with ordinary water, and sometimes some iron bars are put in, and then the lid is put on. Some holes were punched in the cover in advance so that the iron bar could protrude from these holes. The patients sat around the bathtub, each holding one end of the iron bar, waiting for the magic from the iron bar to receive treatment. In order to strengthen the curative effect, mesmer himself will also appear, wearing a luxurious robe and holding an iron bar. Occasionally, he will approach and touch a patient with an iron bar and let his powerful "animal magnetism" participate in the treatment.

The story of mesmer's magic bathtub spread like wildfire at the top of Parisian society. In order to make things more exciting, we should not only have strange curative effects, but also hint that other more interesting effects can be produced. Around the bathtub and Dr. mesmer's strong appearance, a really strange thing happened. Both men and women seem to be out of their normal state, and sometimes they even behave strangely.

Mesmer has become a Parisian fashion, but his ambition is even bigger. But he still hasn't won the respect of the scientific community. As his story spread like wildfire, his wild words spread to the ears of his peers, and those who just laughed at his absurd behavior in the past paid more and more attention to his behavior. More and more colleagues began to regard him as a liar and quack, rather than a misguided scientist.

When the news leaked in Paris, mesmer was organizing his own secret society "Harmony Club" to promote animal magnetism and "more social welfare", the farce was coming to an end. It's time for the French government to investigate mesmer's words and deeds.

1785, the committee proposed by the French government began to investigate mesmer's theory. Members include some outstanding people, such as French first-class chemist lavoisier Franklin, astronomer Jean SylvainBailly (1736- 1793) and Joseph Guillotine (1738- 18 14).

After a thorough investigation, the Committee handed over a detailed authoritative report, which completely defeated mesmer and made him lose his reputation in Paris. The Committee concluded that there was absolutely no evidence of "animal magnetism". All the so-called "cures" and their claimed effects are the imagination of customers and patients in mesmer after being stimulated. In short, "animal magnetism" does not exist. There was only one condescending and headstrong therapist, and his "suggestion" triggered some kind of reaction from patients.

Moderns in Mesmer is gone forever. When he returned to Vienna, he became a mocker. Until his death, he insisted that he was destroyed by jealous competitors who slandered his scientific achievements and his important discoveries. He thinks he has discovered a new powerful force in the universe.

/kloc-various deceptive quacks appeared in the 0/8th century. Given the prevalence of mesmer and such clowns, it is not surprising that some historians call the18th century "the golden age of quacks". Parallel to this era are some of the greatest advances in the history of science. In the book Quack Doctors in Old London published by Thompson 17 10, joseph addison (1672- 17 19) commented on many quack doctors on the streets of London: "If someone has a headache, if someone wants to remarry, or if the horse is stolen or stolen.

/kloc-the pseudo-scientists in the 0/8th century, like many swindlers and quacks of our time, are very good at putting a scientific coat on their folk medicine and "curative effect". Among these people, there is a man who calls himself Katterfelto and travels in a caravan with a group of black cats and a newly invented "sun microscope" (as his advertisement says). According to an article at that time, through this magical tool, people can see "insects on the hedge" ... bigger than all insects; There are also insects that cause the recent flu, which look as big as birds; You can see more than 50,000 insects in a water drop the size of a needle tip. Beer, milk, vinegar, flour, blood and cheese are all the same.

After using his amazing "sun microscope" as bait, Catforto further promoted the mysterious "Dr. Blateau's medicine" to the convinced audience. He promised that this medicine could cure many diseases. Obviously, this good doctor is willing to meet the needs of all patients. He also teaches "natural science" and medicine everywhere, including gambling, cards and billiards skills.

In London, as in Paris, there are many swindlers and pseudoscience soliciting business in the upper class. One of the most notorious is james graham (1745- 1794), who lives in the richest area of the city. Graham was born in England and immigrated to America when he was young. When he lived in Philadelphia, he heard about Franklin's electrical experiment. 1775 After returning to London, Graham immediately began to promote his magical new "electronic medicine". With the latest trend of electricity, Graham soon found himself very popular with customers.

Graham claimed that he could cure all diseases by using an electrified headgear and suddenly giving the patient an electric shock. Perhaps because the experience of electric shock is so exciting and novel, people regard electric shock as a medical effect and give generously to the treatment. Graham soon found himself a rich man. His next step is to build a bigger studio, which he calls the "Health Temple". 1779, the "Health Temple" opened, and Graham gave various strange treatments to the swarming customers. In the luxurious guest room of the temple, rich and powerful customers not only listened to Graham explain the magical functions brought by electrotherapy, but also tried various therapies themselves.

However, Graham's favorite musical instrument is his famous "celestial bed". In the most luxurious room of the temple, there is a Tiantan bed, 12 feet long and 9 feet wide, which can be placed at different angles. Surrounded by relaxing music, a big mirror is placed above, and a pair of lovers can spend a beautiful night here-after paying a high price. The electric shock on the headboard reinforced this beautiful feeling. Graham claimed that with the help of this "electrofluid", happy lovers would be "lucky to have offspring".

As people realize more and more that wisdom and knowledge are no longer exclusive to the church, powerful people begin to encounter such swindlers in large numbers. For the true followers of Copernicus, Galileo and Newton, they tried their best to explore the secrets of nature in the laboratory, but at the same time they found sellers for those seemingly amazing revelations and "discoveries"-these people both wandered in the streets and sought excitement in the upper class. As the authority around us began to shake, the confused public was confused in the face of various changes. Most of them are aware of the existence of various possibilities for the first time in their lives. Because most people ignore the scientific method and only know the miracle in the scientific result, in their view, anything is possible. If it's Franklin, why not mesmer or Graham? If Newton can explain the motion of the planets, who says Callisto can't explain the future direction of mankind?

Just as the seeds of the scientific revolution began to bear fruit in the18th century, for many people, maybe everything will come, or at least nothing is impossible. If the mysteries of nature can indeed be revealed, can't some things that science can't explore be hidden in these mysteries?

Ironically, this era had hoped to see rational and scientific methods drive away the roots of ancient superstitions, but in the end it produced a more powerful new superstition, one of which was to replace the role of gods and demons with natural mechanisms, which produced a supernatural effect that many people still dream of.

Ironically, as one of the dark heritages of18th century, this kind of "natural supernaturalism" lasted for a long time and even entered the 2nd1century.