Who knows the history of medical development?

Since the development of primitive society, medicine has gone through a long and complicated road. Its development is restricted by the level of productive forces and relations of production, and is closely related to the progress of natural science and technology and the development of philosophy. Archaeologists found that Yuanmou ape-man unearthed in Yunnan, China, 6.5438+0.72 million years ago could use stone tools and fire. The use of fire not only distinguishes people from animals, but also has great significance to health. In the process of long-term dependence on plants, human beings have gradually become familiar with the nutrition, toxicity and therapeutic effects of plants. The ancient Chinese medicine book in China is called "Materia Medica", and the English medicine is called "Medicine" (i.e. dry vegetation), which means that the medicine comes from plants. Some people think that the earliest known drugs are painkillers (solanaceae plants) and plants that stimulate the digestive system. The drugs found in different areas are different. People in China found that rhubarb has purgative effect, while ephedra can stop asthma. Peruvians treat fever with cinchona. Due to the progress of production tools and the invention of bows and arrows, humans began hunting and animal husbandry. With the development of hunting and animal husbandry, on the one hand, there are simple trauma rescue methods, such as the treatment of trauma, fracture and dislocation; At the same time, people know the nutritional value of animals, and animal medicines (such as fat, blood, bone marrow and liver) also appear. Animal husbandry economy enables herders to observe the effects of plants on animals, thus promoting the understanding of plant medicines. For example, according to the records of Greek historians, shepherds discovered veratrum. The appearance of pottery and clay products made it possible to cook dishes and bake medicines. In short, with human beings, there is medicine. The origin of medical knowledge is the accumulation of human collective experience, which is produced in the struggle with diseases. The development of pure medical knowledge into medicine and pharmacy is closely related to the local philosophy at that time, such as the influence of Yin and Yang and Five Elements in China medicine and the influence of Four Elements in Greek medicine. The original slave country of ancient medicine was born on both sides of the river basin. Egyptians created their own cultural undertakings in the Nile valley, Babylonians in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Indians in the Indus and Ganges rivers, and China in the Yellow River valley. In slave society, productivity has made a big step forward compared with primitive society. Slave labor makes the division of labor possible and creates conditions for the further development of culture and science. "Professional doctors" appeared in slave society. In slave society, one of the outstanding cultural achievements is the invention of writing. With writing, ancient slave countries left a large number of medical documents. With the development and consolidation of slave society, the religious color in medicine has increased. China's Shan Hai Jing records that Wu Peng, Wu Di and Wu Yang are all wonderful doctors. Medicine in India, Egypt and Babylon is also shrouded in a strong religious color. Most medical literature in slave society comes from monks. Therefore, these documents contain many superstitious elements. Medicine in Egypt is about 4000 ~ 3000 BC. Egypt has formed a slave society and its culture is quite developed. They believe that everything belongs to God, so monks are responsible for eliminating disasters and diseases for people, and religious and non-religious empirical medicine are mixed. In order to drive away the ghosts in the body, they used vomiting, diarrhea, diuresis, sweating and other methods, and the method of enema was also known. Due to superstition, the rich in Egypt kept the remains of the dead forever. From about 3000 BC, the mummy method was implemented, and the corpse was smeared with spices and medicines, which was called "mummy". This is of great help to understand the structure of human body, and also becomes valuable information for modern study of ancient pathology. In addition, there were 5 or 6 kinds of medical books written in papyrus in ancient Egypt. The famous cursive script of kahan, which was discovered in Egypt by British archaeologist F. petrie in 1888 ~ 1890, was written in 2000 ~ 1800 BC, and belongs to gynecology. Smith's papyrus was written about 1700 BC, which is surgery; Elbers's papyrus was written about 1550 BC, which is a general theory of medicine. Indian medicine India formed a slave society from the end of 4000 BC to the beginning of 3000 BC. Ashveda recorded medicine and health, and it was a later work (6th century BC). According to historical records, surgical operations in India are very developed, and amputation, eye surgery, nose shaping, fetal foot inversion, caesarean section and other operations can be carried out at the latest in the 4th century. In addition to plant medicine, Indians also use animal medicine and mineral medicine. Because there are many poisonous snakes, India also has doctors who specialize in treating poisonous snake bites. Indian medicine believes that health is the result of the normal cooperation of three organisms-qi, mucus and bile. Later, the theory of "body fluid in four limbs" in Greek medicine influenced India, making the original theory of three body fluids increasing blood become the "four major" theories. The most famous surgeon in ancient India was Miao Wen (born in 5th century BC), and the most famous physician was Kologa (born in+0th century AD). Babylonian and Assyrian Medicine At the end of 3000 BC and the beginning of 2000 BC, in the middle of the two river basins, Babylon formed a slave country. It was not until 700 BC that Assyria conquered Babylon. Babylonian and Assyrian astrology is closely related to medicine. They think that the structure of the body conforms to the movement of celestial bodies, and this idea that the human body is a small universe is quite similar to that in ancient China. They attach importance to the liver and regard it as the main organ of the body for divination (liver divination), and examine the liver of sacrificial animals in great detail. About 1700 BC, King Hammurabi of Babylon made a code, which contained the provisions on medical treatment, and was the earliest medical treatment law in the world. It stipulates: "If a slave dies or is blind due to a doctor's operation, the doctor shall compensate the slave owner for all or half of the slave value. If a blind man or a dead man is a gentleman, the doctor will cut off his hand as punishment. " Babylon, like Egypt, has two kinds of doctors, one is a monk, and the treatment method is spells and prayers; One is a doctor with practical experience, not a civilian. Ancient Greek Medicine From the 7th century BC to the 6th century BC, Greece entered slave society from primitive clan society. The Greeks absorbed the cultural advantages of Egypt and Babylon and made great achievements in all aspects of culture and science. Greek medicine is the foundation of medical development in Rome and Europe. Until now, the medical symbols used by Europeans: walking sticks and snakes, originated from Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine. Many ancient Greek medical words are still in use today. In the 5th century BC, empedocles proposed that all objects are composed of "four elements", namely fire, air (wind), water and earth (earth). These four elements are mixed together in different proportions and become objects of various properties, similar to China's Five Elements Theory. For example, muscle is composed of four elements with equal weight, and nerve is composed of fire, earth and water with double beliefs; Bones are a mixture of two parts water, two parts soil and four parts water. The representative figure of Greek medicine is Hippocrates (about 460 BC ~ 377 BC). The book Hippocrates, named after him, may include many later research contributions, and it is the most important ancient book for studying Greek medicine at present. The Hippocratic school developed the theory of four elements into the theory of four body fluids pathology. They believe that the life of the body depends on four kinds of body fluids: blood, mucus, yellow bile and black bile. Different combinations of four elements are the basis of these four liquids, and each liquid has adapted to a certain "temperament". Everyone's temperament depends on the dominant liquid in his body. If heat is the basis of blood, it comes from the heart, and if blood is dominant, it is sanguine. Four body fluids are balanced, then the body is healthy; Disorder leads to many diseases. Hippocratic school tends to understand the physiological process of the body from a unified whole. They said: "The disease starts from the whole body ... individual parts of the body immediately cause diseases in other parts, the waist causes diseases in the head, and the head causes diseases in the muscles and abdomen ... These parts are interrelated ... and all changes can be spread to all parts." Hippocratic school also attaches importance to the influence of external factors on diseases, and has a clear preventive thought. They teach young doctors to study the climate, soil, water and lifestyle of residents in cities they have never been to. As a doctor, only by studying the living conditions of the city in advance can we do a good job in urban medical work. They asked doctors not to hinder the "natural" process of pathological changes, but to work according to medical knowledge and consider nature. The Hippocratic Collection talks about medical ethics in many places, the famous Hippocratic oath, which later Europeans will take after studying medicine. After the 4th century BC, Greek medicine gradually declined, and the medical center turned to Hellenistic Alexandria. Alexander's doctor Herophilus (335-280 BC) noticed anatomy. In addition, pharmacy also developed during this period. Medicine in ancient Rome Rome is a centralized empire, and the organization of the country is first manifested as having a standing army. In order to maintain the combat effectiveness of the army, the Roman Empire had military medical institutions; In order to prevent epidemics, the Roman Empire established the position of "medical governor" as an official of the government administrative organs. They are also responsible for holding examinations and approving doctors approved by the government. Rome also has a high level of public health, using slave labor to build urban waterways (drinking water in Rome is piped from outside the city through nine ditches), sewers and baths. In the famous "Twelve Copper Table Law", it is also forbidden to bury in the city, and it is pointed out that attention should be paid to drinking water hygiene. The development of medicine in Roman times has inherited relations with medicine in ancient Greece. In the 2nd century BC, the Romans occupied it? Many people were born in Rome, such as Gallen (about 129 ~ 199), the most famous doctor in Rome, whose ancestral home is Greece. He knows Hippocrates like the back of his hand. Galen's view is mixed with teleology, that is, everything in nature has a purpose, and human structure is also set for the purpose of the creator. He said: the left heart wall is thicker and heavier than the right heart wall in order to control the vertical position of the heart; The artery wall is dense in order to better prevent the tiny gas in the artery wall from escaping. This theory of destiny was regarded as a dogma by later generations, which hindered the development of science. In terms of treatment, he attaches importance to drug treatment. He proved that there are both effective components that should be used and harmful components that should be discarded in herbs. He has his own special pharmacy, and a large number of plants are used to prepare pills, powder, ointment, infusion, decoction, tincture, lotion and other preparations for later use. Up to now, pharmaceutical preparations are still called "Galen preparations". Medieval European medicine The Roman Empire split in 395 BC. The Western Roman Empire was destroyed by barbarians (Germans, Franks, Visigoths, Vandals, etc.) in the 5th century. ) and split into several barbarian kingdoms. In Europe, from the 6th century to 13 and 14 centuries, it was called the dark age, and there was little cultural progress. The Eastern Roman Empire was preserved in the name of Byzantium. Byzantine culture is the successor of Greek and Roman culture. There were medical schools, hospitals and pharmacies. Doctors in Byzantium were mostly editors of medical encyclopedias. They collected the rich medical heritage of ancient times and systematized it. Byzantium was not destroyed by Turkey until15th century. In the Middle Ages, Europe was in a period of economic and cultural decline, and the Pope and the king competed for sovereignty. Catholicism occupied almost13 of the land in Europe, and the church became the largest feudal Lord, and temples flourished. Culturally, medieval Europe was almost completely ruled by the church. Theology permeates all intellectual groups, and medicine is also mastered by monks. Only they know Latin, and they still keep some medical knowledge handed down from ancient times. They treat patients and pray for them, which becomes the so-called "temple doctors". Linking cure with "sacred miracle" has hindered the development of medicine. 165438+Crusades in the 20th century, urban development, business travel, etc. Broaden the horizons of Europeans and stimulate the development of scientific knowledge. From 1 1 to13rd century, many cities in Europe established universities. Among them, the most famous medical schools belong to the University of Salerno and the University of Padua, which were least influenced by scholasticism and played a progressive role in medieval Europe. In the Middle Ages, the main discipline of universities was scholasticism, and its basic content was to explain or demonstrate the authenticity of the Bible. At that time, medical students mainly studied the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna, memorized the dogma of authoritative works and despised practice, so they stagnated and made little progress in medicine. In addition, European medieval epidemics were rampant, among which plague, leprosy and syphilis were the most prosperous. Leprosy was the most rampant in the13rd century, with an average of one patient in every 400 people in Europe, and then it stopped spreading after strict isolation, which also promoted the establishment of European hospitals. 1346 European plague epidemic prompted quarantine at Venice port, and later London and Paris also promulgated some laws and regulations to prevent infectious diseases. Arab Medicine During the 7th and 8th centuries, Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, North Africa, Pyrenees Peninsula and many other countries and regions (or pre-Byzantine Empire) all belonged to the feudal Islamic powers, the so-called "Kingdom of Khalifa Arabia". Arabia inherited the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, and at the same time had frequent business contacts with the East, and absorbed the cultures of India and China. Therefore, it plays a role in communicating the cultures of all ethnic groups in Europe and Asia. Major philosophical, scientific and medical works in Greek and Latin have been translated into Arabic. Arabia has made great achievements in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, agriculture, architecture and medicine. Arabic medicine refers to the traditional medicine in Arabic-speaking areas. From the 8th century to12nd century, medicine in this area was very developed. Arabia has made great achievements in chemistry, pharmacology and pharmaceutical technology. Chemistry at that time was called alchemy. An alchemist has two purposes: one is to turn base metals into precious metals; The second is to refine the elixir of life. Although the purpose of alchemy is absurd, countless experiments have established some basic principles of chemistry, found many substances and compounds useful to human beings and medical treatment, and designed and improved many experimental operation methods, such as distillation, sublimation, crystallization, filtration and so on. These greatly enriched the methods of pharmaceutical preparations and promoted the development of pharmacy. Avicenna (980 ~ 1037) was a great doctor in the Middle Ages and one of the outstanding doctors in the world medical history. He is also a famous encyclopedia editor and thinker. His most famous medical work is Medical Code, which has been translated into Latin many times. For a long time, Canon of Medicine has been a must-read guide book for studying medicine. In terms of treatment, Avicenna attached great importance to drug therapy, which he discussed in detail in Neijing. He not only uses Greek and Indian drugs, but also collects drugs made in China. He also used mud therapy, water therapy, solar therapy and air therapy. In diagnosis, he attached great importance to pulse diagnosis, and he divided the pulse into 48 types. Through Arabia, China's medicine was also introduced to the West.