What's the difference between a paper and a topic?

Literature is a carrier that records human knowledge by means of words, figures, symbols, audio and video, or is understood as knowledge solidified on a material carrier. Now it is usually understood as the sum of books, periodicals and other publications. Literature is the most effective means of recording, accumulating, spreading and inheriting knowledge, the most basic and main source of information in human social activities, and the most basic means of information exchange and dissemination. Because of this, people call literature the material basis of information work. At home and abroad, we often see people equate literature with information and philology with information science. Although this equivalence may be inappropriate, it reflects the extremely important position of literature in information activities and science.

There are many ways to distinguish the types or forms of documents, the most important of which is to divide them into printing type, miniature type, machine-readable type and audio-visual type according to the carrier. (1) printing type: it is the most basic way of literature, including lead printing, mimeograph, offset printing, lithograph and other materials. Advantages: you can read directly, which is convenient and fast. (2) Miniaturization: documents based on photosensitive materials can be divided into microfilm and microfilm. Its advantages are small size and convenient storage, transfer and transportation. But you must use a reader when reading. (3) Computer readable: It is the latest form of carrier. Mainly through coding and programming, files are converted into symbols and machine language, input into computers, stored on magnetic tapes or disks, and then output by computers when reading. It can store a large amount of information, organize it in any form, and extract the required information from it at a very fast speed. E-books that have appeared in recent years belong to this type. (4) Audio-visual type: also known as direct sense or audio-visual type, it is a file recorded on the carrier in the form of sound and image, such as records, audio tapes, video tapes, science and technology movies, slides, etc.

The role of literature in the development of science and society is as follows: (1) is the final expression of scientific research and technological research achievements; (2) It is the best means to spread information in space and time; (3) It is the basic means to confirm the priority of researchers to a discovery or invention; (4) It is an important index to measure the creative labor efficiency of researchers; (5) It is a means for researchers to express themselves and confirm their position in science, so it is an important incentive for researchers to carry out research activities; (6) It is an integral part of the treasure house of human knowledge and the * * * wealth of human beings.

Literature can be divided into first-class literature, second-class literature and third-class literature according to its content, nature and processing mode. Primary literature refers to the original literature created on the basis of the author's own research results, such as periodical papers, research reports, patent specifications, conference papers, etc. Secondary literature is one of the retrieval tools such as bibliography, title record, introduction and abstract. The three documents are based on the first-level documents and the second-level documents. People usually refer to these documents as the results of "information research", such as reviews, thematic reviews, annual summaries of disciplines, progress reports, data manuals and so on. Similarly, some people divide intelligence into primary intelligence, secondary intelligence and tertiary intelligence.

Thesis is one of the main manifestations of educational scientific research achievements, and it is an article devoted to in-depth discussion and discussion of a certain problem.

Generally speaking, this problem is very complicated, big and important, or there are newly discovered problems. The bigger one can be called the "main body". Papers can be written by many people together or by one person.

Generally, bachelor's degree, master's degree and doctor's degree can only be obtained through thesis defense, that is, the tutor will ask you some questions about your thesis, please answer them, and see whether you are qualified to obtain a degree according to your answers and the situation of your thesis.

1, what is an academic paper?

People's Republic of China (PRC) national standards VDC 00 1.8 1 and CB 77 13-87 define academic papers as follows:

Academic papers are the knowledge and scientific records of an academic subject with new scientific research achievements or innovative ideas in experiments, theories or observations; Or apply the known principles to the scientific summary of the new progress made in practice for reading, communication or discussion at academic conferences; Or published in academic journals; Or written documents for other purposes.

In the field of social sciences, people usually refer to papers expressing scientific research achievements as academic papers.

Academic papers have four characteristics: ① academic; ② scientific; ③ Creativity; 4 theoretical.

Academic: First of all, we must understand what "academic" is. The so-called academic refers to more professional and systematic knowledge. The so-called academic nature means that the content of research and discussion is specialized and systematic, that is, taking a professional problem in the scientific field as the research object. Of course, there are also some academic problems that can't be solved by just one professional knowledge, so there will be two or more professional experts to study together and use their respective professional knowledge to solve an academic problem and write academic papers. For example, the problem of dating Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties cannot be solved by historians alone, so experts from ancient philologists, astronomers, archaeologists and other disciplines are mobilized to study together and then write scientific works. Academic papers are highly specialized in topic selection. For example, Institutions and Powers under the Three Provinces System in the Tang Dynasty, Conflicts of Interests in the Sino-Soviet Treaty and Their Solutions, and On Song Taizong are very professional in terms of topics. On the contrary, such as "Mr. Qi Gong I Know" and "Holidays: Children Watch TV Slow" are not professional from the topic.

From the content, academic papers are obviously professional. Academic thesis is the author's use of his own systematic professional knowledge to demonstrate or solve highly specialized academic problems. Sometimes it is difficult to judge whether it is an academic paper simply from the title, so we must distinguish it from the content. For example, 200 1 is the 90th anniversary of the Revolution of 1911, and all major newspapers in China publish editorials. Although I also talk about historical issues, I mainly focus on reality. This is not an academic paper, but an argumentative paper and a political paper. If a historian studies a problem of the Revolution of 1911 from the perspective of history, such as the article "Zhang Tang Friendship and the Revolution of 1911" published by the famous historian Zhang Kaiyuan in the first issue of Historical Research in 2002, it is an academic paper that analyzes the contributions of two representatives of the reformists, Zhang Jian and Tang Shouqian, in various innovative undertakings during the Revolution of 1911. Another example is the topic of breaking superstition, which can be written as a political paper or an ideological review. But if a geographer uses geographical knowledge to demonstrate the coexistence of ancient science and feudal superstition in Feng Shui, it is not an ordinary argumentative paper, but an academic paper. If we analyze "fortune telling" and "divination" from the perspective of psychology, it is likely to become an academic paper with strong psychological professionalism. Therefore, whether there is obvious professionalism in content is the most important difference between academic papers and general argumentative papers.

From the perspective of language expression, academic papers use professional terms and professional chart symbols to express their contents, mainly for peers, so we don't care whether others can understand them, but express academic problems concisely, accurately and normatively, so professional terms are used a lot.

② Scientific:

Scientific nature is the characteristic of academic papers, and it is also the life and value of academic papers. The purpose of carrying out academic research and writing academic papers is to reveal the objective laws of the development of things and explore the objective truth, thus promoting the prosperity and development of science, which determines that academic papers must be scientific.

The so-called scientific nature means that the content of research and discussion is accurate, the thinking is rigorous and the reasoning is logical.

To be scientific in academic papers, the first thing is the attitude of scientific research, which is an honest and realistic attitude. We should carry out academic research with a serious attitude, rigorous style of study and rigorous methods. To engage in social science research, we must start from a large number of materials and draw conclusions through analysis. You can't draw conclusions first, and then find materials to demonstrate. Engaged in experimental research, carried out systematic and multi-faceted experiments on the subject, analyzed and synthesized from a large number of experimental data, and drew correct conclusions.

It is very popular to write biographies of the dead, especially contemporary figures. When a cadre dies, his children may get some money, so they ask someone to write a biography for their relatives. Some people are afraid to respect others, act recklessly, violate historical facts and distort historical facts. This is not a scientific attitude, and a biography written with this attitude is bound to be unscientific.

The main manifestations of incorrect attitude are: some people deliberately distort the facts, do something unconventional, and even falsify the facts and put forward so-called new ideas in order to seek fame and gain publicity. For example, a British researcher who was once famous all over the world, "convinced that the theory is correct and fabricated data"; In order to make herself famous, a female scientist in the former Soviet Union invented a fake experiment on the origin of cells. There are also some people who spy on the direction and write articles according to the wind direction in order to achieve some personal purpose. No matter what the real situation is, they only look at the intention of an authority and regard the right and wrong of an authority as right and wrong. This is not a scientific attitude. Not a scientific attitude, you can't write a scientific article. For example, Comrade Mao Zedong had different attitudes towards Li Bai and Du Fu, preferring Li Bai to Du Fu. After Lao Guo knew it, he praised Li and suppressed Du Fu in the book Li Bai and Du Fu, which damaged the scientific nature of the book.

Academic papers should be scientific, followed by scientific research methods. In other words, we should use Marxist standpoint and viewpoint, dialectical materialism and historical materialism for scientific discussion. The important expression of science in the way of thinking is logic. Mr. Wang Li said: "The first and most important thing in writing a paper is to use logical thinking. Without scientific mind, you can't write a scientific paper. The so-called scientific mind is also a logical mind. " (quoted from "Talking about Writing Papers", see how to write PS in academic papers. Peking University Publishing House 198 1 year)

Some historical papers adopt simplified methods when evaluating historical figures. Good is absolutely good, and bad is absolutely bad, which is unscientific, because it does not conform to the facts. Historical figures are very complicated, so we can't simply evaluate them. We should seek truth from facts. It is scientific to affirm what you earn and point out what you earn.

The scientific research method is to use induction first, then deduction, and not vice versa. It is necessary to sum up from a large number of specific materials, from individual to general, and then analyze them on the basis of induction, and finally draw a conclusion. It is an anti-scientific research method to ask more questions about the conclusion and think and demonstrate repeatedly. Any research that draws conclusions before looking for materials.

Academic papers should be scientific, and the third is scientific content. What kind of content is scientific? This is that the argument is correct, the concept is clear, the argument is conclusive and sufficient, the reasoning is rigorous, and the language is accurate.

Argument (viewpoint) is the conclusion of academic research, which should reflect the essential law of objective things, reveal objective truth, conform to objective reality, and stand the test of practice, scrutiny and logical reasoning.

The extension and connotation of concepts in the paper should be clear, accurate and definite, and should not be blurred or changed at will.

The arguments should be conclusive and sufficient, and we should not jump to conclusions with isolated evidence, let alone distort or forge materials.

Strict reasoning means that arguments and arguments are organically linked and impeccable. Hypothetical reasoning should have strict logic. Some textual research needs analogy, and we should also pay attention to the comparability and reliability of analogy.

③ Innovation:

Creativity is considered as one of the characteristics of academic papers, which is determined by the needs of scientific development.

Scientific research is the exploration of new knowledge. If scientific research is only inherited and not created, then human civilization will not advance. The history of mankind is a history of constant discovery and invention, that is, a history of constant innovation. If a nation has no innovative spirit, it will decline. Similarly, a paper without innovation is worthless.

The innovation of academic papers is mainly manifested in the following aspects:

A. new discoveries, inventions and theories to fill gaps. Human scientific research activities are mainly discovery activities and invention activities. Discovery is a scientific achievement in understanding the world. Discovering something that existed before but was unknown to people is discovery. For example, Madame Curie discovered radium and archaeologists discovered dinosaur fossils. Scientific discovery has added wealth to the treasure house of human knowledge and enabled science to develop. Invention is a scientific and technological achievement that transforms the world. It uses knowledge to invent new achievements that are useful to human beings and become direct productive forces, such as steam engines and electronic computers. The new theory is a self-contained theory, which has great theoretical guiding significance for human practice. Such as Marx's Das Kapital, Li Siguang's "New Huaxia Structural System" and Deng Xiaoping Theory.

B. develop, improve and innovate on the basis of inheritance. Innovation is inseparable from scientific inheritance. Many research results are developed on the basis of inheritance. It is also an innovation to develop on the basis of inheritance. Only innovation can develop. For example, Japanese color TV sets have inherited three-point technology from Europe and seven-point technology from the United States, and created more advanced Japanese technology on the basis of integrating more than 300 international high and new technologies. The electronic computer is developing continuously in the inheritance and innovation from generation to generation, and it is still being updated with each passing day. Deng Xiaoping Theory also creatively developed the socialist theory on the basis of inheriting Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought and combining with China's national conditions.

C. put forward independent opinions in different opinions. In the process of scientific research, academic contention is inevitable. To participate in academic contention, we should avoid following other people's viewpoints and bases, give serious thinking, actively participate in contention, and boldly put forward our own independent opinions and arguments. It is also a kind of creativity to make a little contribution to active thinking and scientific originality.

D. overturn the previous conclusion. Because in the process of exploring the objective laws of the material world, it is impossible to exhaust its essence at once, and the theories and theories of any school are not perfect and correct. Researchers' understanding of the research object and their own knowledge structure are inevitably limited. Even if their conclusions were considered correct at that time, with the development of history, the progress of science and the update of research methods, it is likely that these conclusions will be found to be problematic. So we advocate inheritance, but we are not superstitious. If we find its mistake, we need to criticize it and overthrow it with scientific courage. There are too many such examples in the history of science, which is also an innovation.

E. creatively synthesize existing information. The reason why this is also an innovation is because the author finds and puts forward problems in the process of synthesis and guides people to solve problems.

In today's world, information is abundant and words are vast, so it is very popular to index the information in different categories, which has made a real contribution to scientific research. However, collating papers not only provide more detailed information than indexes, but also are more valuable. In the process of reading a large number of similar information, the organizer screens and summarizes with his unique professional vision and professional thinking, and the information is highly concentrated. The organizer systematically synthesizes the academic essence scattered in various articles into well-organized questions, which can be seen at a glance. This is a creative synthesis. This synthesis is obviously different from abstraction. This kind of synthesis needs professional expertise, academic appreciation level, comprehensive induction ability, and keen ability to find problems with academic value.

We should actively pursue the creativity of academic papers and make our own contributions to the development of science. We should consciously resist "conformity" or papers with no new ideas, and also consciously resist writing articles that repeat what others have said and make a new face in order to promote professional titles. It is academic sorrow to regard thesis writing as a "stepping stone" to promote professional titles.

But we should also see that the creativity of an academic paper is limited. Amazing discoveries, great inventions and filling gaps are by no means easy. It is impossible for every academic paper to have such creativity. But as long as you have your own opinions, add something new to the existing research results, provide some unknown information, enrich other people's arguments, and make contributions to the academic field from different angles and aspects, it can be regarded as a kind of creation.

(4) theoretical.

The biggest difference between academic papers and popular science books, practice reports and scientific and technological information lies in their theoretical characteristics. The so-called theorization refers to the theorization of the author's thinking, the theorization of the conclusion and the argumentation of the paper expression.

A. theoretical thinking. That is to say, the researcher's thinking about the research object does not stay on the scattered sensibility, but uses the speculative methods such as concept, judgment, analysis, induction and reasoning to deeply understand the essence and law of the research object, and highly generalize and sublimate it into a theory.

It is not easy to carry out theoretical thinking, transform perceptual knowledge into rational knowledge and realize a leap in understanding, which requires great efforts and hardships. Some people are afraid of theoretical thinking because of time constraints or difficulties, so that they write academic papers as enumerative phenomena and deal with facts, thus making academic papers lose their theoretical color and their value greatly reduced.

B. the theoretical nature of the conclusion. The conclusion of an academic paper is not an exciting word on a whim, nor is it a fantasy, nor is it a trivial emotional accident. The conclusion of academic papers is based on full fact induction, and its essence and law are highly summarized through rational thinking, thus sublimated into theory. The higher the level of rational thinking, the higher the theoretical value of the conclusion.

C. demonstration of expression. In addition to the theoretical nature of thinking and conclusions, academic papers must also demonstrate conclusions logically and accurately in order to achieve impeccable and unquestionable persuasion.

After figuring out what academic papers are, we can easily understand historical papers.

There is still a big difference.