Is China's civilization indigenous or foreign?

Chinese civilization, like the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, is magnificent and endless. Tracing back to the source, its upstream is ambiguous.

San huang, Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, this is the traditional framework of ancient history. The discovery of Yin Ruins confirmed the credibility of Shang history, but before that, the Three Emperors and Five Emperors and even the Xia Dynasty attracted many questions.

The development of archaeology in China in the last hundred years has greatly promoted our understanding of the early civilization in China. What is Chinese civilization, whether Chinese civilization originated independently, how Chinese civilization originated, why Chinese civilization continues to this day, etc., can all get more reasonable answers.

Correcting Name: What is Chinese Civilization?

From 65438 to 0995, Mr. Wu Hong's book Commemoration of Early Art and Architecture in China was published in the United States, which received strong response, praise and criticism.

Mr Begley is one of the critics. He accused Wu Hong of some crimes, including: Are all the early arts in China "China's"? The ancestors of Sanxingdui culture in Sichuan, can they speak Chinese? The ancestors of Liangzhu culture in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, can they speak Chinese? Can they be regarded as "China people"?

In the History of China in Cambridge, co-authored by Begley, he criticized the so-called "Chinese civilization" of China scholars in the past: the study of ancient China has long been distorted by the concept of "Chinese civilization", which is not well defined and is based on the imagination of future generations.

Just as the Kosovo incident broke out, Mr. Li Ling wrote an article supporting the memorial in China's early art and architecture, and compared the incident to "academic Kosovo" to criticize the "academic hegemony" of some western scholars.

Hegemonism is a big hat, and western scholars are certainly unwilling to bear it.

Nationalism is also a big hat. Chinese civilization, Xia Dynasty, China for five thousand years, Xia, Shang and Zhou dating projects, and Chinese civilization traceability projects are often labeled as nationalism, which China scholars are unwilling to undertake.

What exactly is "China"? What is "Chinese civilization"? Is "China" eternal? This is a hot topic in recent years. Mr. Han Jianye's book The Formation and Development of Early China-China Cultural Circle was directly inspired by "Academic Kosovo", and Mr. Li Ling, Ge, Xu Hong, He Yi, Li Xinwei and others also discussed what "China" was.

The concept of "China" is constantly developing, and its geographical space and cultural connotation are not static. But there are also similarities.

If "China" is understood as the concept of space within the current national territory, the word "Chinese civilization" is understandable, but it is only for reference convenience.

Of course, there is further rationality: first, based on the continuation of Chinese civilization, today's Chinese civilization is indeed related to the prelude of civilization four or five thousand years ago; Both of them are based on the pluralistic integration in the process of the development of Chinese civilization. Without a broad spatial background, we can't understand the evolution of China civilization.

Mr. Su divided the Neolithic culture in China into six flora (namely, 1. North with Yanshan Great Wall as the center of gravity; 2. East with Shandong as the center; 3. The Central Plains is centered on Guanzhong (Shaanxi), southwestern Shanxi and western Henan; 4. Around the southeast of Taihu Lake; 5. Dongting Lake and Sichuan Basin in the southwest; 6. In the south, Poyang Lake-Pearl River Delta line is the central axis). Mr. Zhang Guangzhi once proposed "China Interactive Circle". Mr. Li Xinwei emphasized "the long-distance communication network of the upper strata of prehistoric society in China". The "interaction" and "long-distance communication" among the six flora are the important background for the emergence of "Chinese civilization".

Concepts such as "China", "Huaxia" and "Zhu Xia" include ethnic identity and regional identity, but more are cultural identity. The establishment of "Chinese civilization" is based on this cultural identity.

Some characteristics of China civilization were established at a very early time. Among them, "ceremony" is the key.

Mr. Qian Mu has a famous saying: "To understand China culture, we must look at China's heart from a higher level. China's core idea is' ceremony'. "

What is a "gift"? It is very abstract, it flows in the blood of China civilization; It is also very specific, specific to bronzes, jade and other physical objects.

China's "Li" is usually translated into Japanese soil? But it is hard to equate the two. "Li" is not the same as etiquette and politeness mentioned today, nor is it the same as custom. It was carried out in the ritual system and infiltrated into the ritual code. It is closely related to religion and participates in political practice.

The core of "ceremony" is hierarchy, which is the result of social complexity. This ceremony is no less than Shu Ren's, and it has no direct relationship with the people.

Some people hope to inherit and carry forward this kind of "ritual", while others denounce it as "the ethical code of cannibalism". In any case, it deeply influenced the civilization of China.

Mr. Bu Gong and Mr. Chen Yongyong believe that the symbol of the origin of Chinese civilization is "ceremony", which has sprouted in the Neolithic Age and established the tone of Chinese civilization.

Why didn't Han Confucianism say, "China is a country of courtesy." In the eyes of the ancients, "Li" is the dividing line between barbarism and civilization, and between Siyi and China.

According to ancient records, Shun came from Dongyi, Yu from Xiqiang and Confucius "wanted to live in nine cities". Whether he is a barbarian or not, as long as he accepts the ceremony, he can be included in the "China". The so-called "China belongs to China" (in Chinese), Siyi can be called "Zhu Xia" and "China".

At the latest, in the "Longshan era" 4,300 years ago, the blending of different nationalities and cultures in China intensified, and the pattern of pluralistic integration of Chinese civilization was established. Objects reflecting spiritual culture, such as tooth palms and bronze ritual vessels, are widely distributed in the north and south of the Yangtze River, showing the enhancement of cultural homogeneity in China.

"China" lies not in blood, not in region, but more in cultural tradition. The strong centripetal force and the influence of outward radiation of Chinese civilization should be understood on this basis.

Self-origin: the primitive nature of China civilization

Is China's civilization native or foreign?

In ancient times, this was definitely not a problem. It's always "China" radiating around. How to import "Huaxia"

With the spread of European capitalism, Chinese civilization has gradually stepped onto the historical stage. /kloc-at the end of 0/9, the British scholar Lakbury proposed that the Yellow Emperor moved from Babylon. In addition, some people think that China's ancestors came from Egypt, India and Central Asia.

At that time, the cultural self-confidence of many intellectuals in China was unprecedentedly weak, so they believed in the West. The West also implies that China civilization has lagged behind the West for a long time.

192 1 year, An Tesheng, a Swede, presided over the excavation of Yangshao site in Mianchi, Henan Province, which started the modern archaeological excavation in China. He found that the painted pottery of Yangshao culture was similar to that of Central Asia, so he put forward the hypothesis that the painted pottery culture of Neolithic age in China was introduced from the west.

At that time, the movement of suspecting the ancient times greatly impacted the traditional concept of ancient history. The "Three Emperors and Five Emperors" were no longer regarded as beliefs in history, and many scholars began to look for the spirit in archaeology. Archaeological discoveries in An Tesheng seem to provide evidence for the West.

The excavation of Ziya in Longshan City, Shandong Province and Yin Ruins in Anyang, Henan Province is a sign that China scholars independently carry out archaeological work. Since then, the context of the independent occurrence and development of Neolithic culture in China has become more and more clear. By studying the archaeological cultural sequence and the spread path of painted pottery, scholars found that the so-called "painted pottery road" did exist, but painted pottery spread from east to west, not from west to east as previously thought.

In academic circles, the west has become a thing of the past.

But in the so-called "folk science" circle, there is still a market in the West. For example, some people think that the Three Emperors and Five Emperors are actually so-and-so pharaohs in ancient Egypt; Some people think that the Zhou Dynasty was founded by Jews, because the pronunciation of Jews is similar to Zhou (in fact, the Hebrew pronunciation of Jews is far from the English word Jew); It is also said that according to his study of Shan Hai Jing, China civilization comes from the West. ...

Pre-Qin history is the hardest hit area of "Folk Science", with Oracle Bone Inscriptions, Zhouyi and Shanhaijing bearing the brunt.

Why didn't China civilization come from the west? Let me start with the three concepts of "China people", "China culture" and "Chinese civilization".

The theory of human "going out of Africa" is the mainstream view of international academic circles. "Going out of Africa" includes two levels: one is that primitive people went out of Africa, and the other is that the ancestors of modern people went out of Africa. Current clues show that primitive humans originated in Africa, and they spread to other parts of the world more than once, but only Homo sapiens laughed last more than100000 years ago.

Although some paleolithic archaeologists in China still insist on the continuous evolution and accidental hybridization of East Asian races from the perspective of fossils, molecular anthropology research has confirmed from mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome DNA that the maternal and paternal lines of modern people all over the world are rooted in the African continent more than 10 million years ago, and we are all descendants of Homo sapiens. Although modern humans have also mixed some genes of ancient humans such as Neanderthals and Denisova, they are very few. Neanderthals, Denisovans, Beijingers and Yuanmou people are all extinct ancient creatures.

About 20,000 to 30,000 years ago, a branch of Homo sapiens entered what is now China, and the 56 ethnic groups we are talking about are basically their descendants.

The ancestors of China people are indeed foreign, but this does not mean that our culture and civilization are also foreign.

Broadly speaking, "culture" includes all human material and spiritual creations. Therefore, from "people", there is culture. However, before the Neolithic Age, there were few significant human activities.

More than 10,000 years ago, the "Last Ice Age" ended and the warm interglacial period came, which opened the prelude of the Neolithic Age. It is at this time that the "culture" that really has identity and establishes the tone of human culture began to happen.

The ancestors of West Asia began to plant wheat, and the ancestors of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valley began to plant millet and rice respectively. This is the "agricultural revolution". Abundant food has stimulated the progress of productivity, making stone tools has become polishing stone tools, pottery has become an important tool for people, and settlement life has become more and more common.

Taking the Neolithic culture in China as an example, Shangshan culture, Peiligang culture, Xinglonggou culture, post-Li Wenhua culture and Pengtoushan culture have gradually entered the historical stage. These "cultures" all occur independently, and they are the foundation of Chinese civilization.

What is "civilization"? Many people tend to use the three elements of western scholars (words, bronzes and cities) to define it. "1+ 1+ 1=3" is civilization.

American civilization lacks bronzes, and Inca civilization even has no words, but no one denies that they are civilizations. Although bronze and iron were used in many places in early Europe, they did not enter civilized society.

If a society produces a country, then no one will deny that it has crossed the threshold of civilization. Civilization is the advanced form of human society, and social complexity is its important manifestation.

About 5800 years ago, the Songze culture and Lingjiatan culture in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River began to show signs of social complexity, and class differentiation became more and more obvious. Liangzhu culture, which rose 5,300 years ago, is known as "a demonstration of Chinese civilization for 5,000 years".

Liangzhu ancient city covers an area of about 3 million square meters, and the wall is 40 to 60 meters thick. The earthwork volume of Liangzhu Ancient City, "Earth Pyramid" Jiaomo Mountain (with palace base on it) and surrounding dams is about 6.5438+0.2 million cubic meters. It is speculated that to complete such a project, at least 1000 people need to work continuously for ten years. It is inconceivable that there is no corresponding social mobilization ability.

The tombs, dwellings and settlements of Liangzhu culture all embody a strict hierarchical system, which is like a pyramid-like social structure. Ding, Dou, Hu, Bi, Yue, Cong and other ritual vessels are found in Liangzhu culture. The important feature of Chinese civilization "Li" may have appeared.

Twenty years ago, it was still controversial whether Liangzhu culture entered civilized society. With the discovery of Liangzhu ancient city and its surrounding water conservancy projects, there is no doubt that Liangzhu culture belongs to "civilization".

Liangzhu culture is rooted in the archaeological culture such as Shangshan culture, Majiabang culture and Songze culture, and it is a local civilization. Liangzhu culture died about 4300 years ago, but some elements of its civilization flashed from time to time in the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties and merged into the body of Chinese civilization.

Daniel, a British archaeologist, believes that there are six independent civilizations in the world, namely, ancient Egypt, the two river basins, India, China, Central America and the Andes. Chinese civilization is one of the six primitive civilizations.

China's civilization happened independently, but it doesn't mean that it didn't communicate with the outside world during its development. Long before the Silk Road appeared, Chinese civilization had indirect contact with West Asia and Central Asia. Wheat, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, chariots and bronze smelting technology were gradually introduced to China, which injected vitality into the development of Chinese civilization.

We cannot say that these external factors have influenced the originality of Chinese civilization. The creator of China civilization was born and raised in Sri Lanka, which is closely related to China people today. The emergence of China civilization was not based on metallurgy, wheat and chariots. They were mainly introduced after the "Longshan era", before which the basic framework of Chinese civilization had been established. Their introduction did not change the essence of China civilization.

Metal smelting technology was a high-end technology at that time, and whether it was introduced is still controversial. But there is no doubt that after mastering metallurgy, our ancestors made further improvements and improvements, and the superb application of block mold method and lost wax method made the unique "China Bronze Age". Ancient Chinese bronzes were mainly ritual vessels and weapons, and the proportion of practical tools was very small. Pots, beans, pots and other ritual vessels originally made of pottery have been replaced by bronzes, but the connotation of "ritual" has not changed, so Chinese civilization has not lost its own characteristics.

It is normal for different civilizations to communicate and learn from each other. The history of human development itself is the history of technology and species exchange. We can't deny the originality of ancient Egyptian civilization just because metallurgy didn't first appear in ancient Egypt; Chariots are imported, but the ancestors of ancient Egypt and the two river basins did not have the right to invent them. Human civilization is pluralistic, and sooner or later, there will be disputes over the advantages and disadvantages, and there is no need to be overly self-respecting or inferior.

A long history: the birth of China civilization

In the traditional concept, the Central Plains is the core of Chinese civilization, and the so-called four generations under one roof was once a wild land.

Although the State of Yue in the Warring States period was famous for its military strength, the tattoo of the Yue people was not civilized in the eyes of the Central Plains people, or there was no "ceremony". If it weren't for archaeological excavations, who would have thought that the lower reaches of the Yangtze River four or five thousand years ago was an extremely dazzling civilized town?

The middle reaches of the Yangtze River are regarded as barbarians, but both Qujialing culture and Shijiahe culture in the Neolithic Age and Chu State in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were unique.

In the face of archaeological discoveries, the past Central Plains theory has been greatly impacted. Mr. Su once put forward the theory of "the sky is full of stars". On the eve of the birth of Chinese civilization, the stars are really bright.

The process of social complexity in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River is the most typical. Under the bedding of Songze culture and Lingjiatan culture, Liangzhu culture rose strongly and expanded outward. According to Mr. Xu Hong, Liangzhu culture became the brightest star at that time.

Before and after, Hongshan Culture in the West Liaohe River Basin, Majiayao culture in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, Yangshao culture group in the middle reaches of the Yellow River, Dawenkou culture in the lower reaches of the Yellow River and Qujialing culture in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River also developed rapidly.

Some people say that Liangzhu culture is dead and has nothing to do with Chinese civilization. In fact, after the decline of Liangzhu culture, the local area did not fall into a cultural fault, and the pre-Shanyang culture and Guangfulin culture confirmed in recent years can be said to be its follow-up. More importantly, the cultural factors of Liangzhu culture, such as the combination of pots and ritual vessels, jade articles such as jade cong, and the animal face patterns of gods and men, have had a far-reaching impact on the later Chinese civilization.

4300 years ago was a turning point. Liangzhu culture, Dawenkou culture and Miaodigou culture have all come to an end, while Longshan culture in Shandong, Longshan culture in Henan, Taosi culture in southern Shaanxi, gypsum statue culture in northern Shaanxi, Qijia culture in Gan Qing, Shijiahe culture in Jianghan and Baodun culture in Chengdu Plain have risen, and the "Longshan era" is coming to the fore.

During the "Longshan era", the process of multi-integration intensified, the flow of people was unprecedentedly active, and Chinese civilization faced new integration and leap.

The spotlight of history has shifted from Liangzhu, Zhejiang Province to Taosi Site in Xiangfen, Shanxi Province.

According to ancient records, this place is Pingyang, the capital of Emperor Yao, one of the five emperors. Taosi found a city site of about 2.8 million square meters, musical instruments, Zhu calligraphy and pottery pieces, an observatory and some bronzes. More importantly, Taosi culture, like Liangzhu culture, has distinct social differentiation.

Many people think that Tao Temple is the legendary Pingyang in Du Yao.

Some scholars believe that it is related to the Xia Dynasty, and the Jinnan Basin where Taosi is located is the "Summer Site" in the literature.

It seems that the rise of Taosi Temple is not a natural evolution of local culture. In the early period of Taosi culture, there were many cultural factors from surrounding areas, among which Dawenkou culture, Liangzhu culture and other eastern cultures played an important role.

The decline of Taos is also an abnormal event. Since the middle period, the culture of Taosi seems to have changed, and a large number of cultural factors from the north have appeared. In the later period, the foreign population of Taosi increased sharply, and the tombs in the early and middle period were consciously destroyed.

Some people suspect that it may be a historical fact that Yao was imprisoned by Shun in his later years.

We might as well look at it another way. Although the legendary Yao and Shun are active in the south of Shanxi, there are some clues that they are from the East. On behalf of Yu, it seems that there is a background of Qiang and Rong in the northwest, and the saying that Yu was born in Xiqiang is too numerous to mention in ancient books.

To the north of Taosi is the ancient city of He Miaomiao discovered in recent years. It is located in Shenmu, northern Shaanxi, with an area of more than 4 million square meters and an unprecedented scale. Different from Liangzhu ancient city and Taosi ancient city earlier in the same period, it was built with stones instead of rammed earth.

Shimao culture is closely related to the Qijia culture in the region, and the area where they are distributed is the land of Qiang and Rong in the eyes of future generations.

Mr. He Yi, the captain of Taosi Archaeological Team, believes that Taosi has become a colony attached to Shimao Power Center in the later period.

About 4000 years ago was also a turning point: during this period, the climate fluctuated violently and the flood and drought were out of balance, which was probably the historical background of the legend of Dayu's water control; This is the time when the legendary Xia Dynasty was established. This is also the time when the northern forces represented by Shimao went south in a big way.

We might as well have more associations.

About 3,800 years ago, both He Miaomiao and Taosi faded out of the historical stage, and the "Longshan Age" came to an end. After the brewing of Xinzhai culture, Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan Province was born.

Although the weather in Taosi is Wang Du, the archaeological observation is temporarily confined to Jinnan Basin. Erlitou, on the other hand, is not confined to the Luo Yi Valley, and its sphere of influence has expanded unprecedentedly, so it is regarded as a real wide-area kingship country.

Mr CoCo Lee divided Longshan society into highland and lowland. Erlitou culture is saturated with the blood of Longshan society in highland (including Taosi, He Miaomiao and Qijia), and also integrated into the culture of Longshan society in eastern lowlands. The process of multi-integration has been further accelerated.

Most scholars believe that Erlitou culture belongs to Xia culture in whole or in part, and Erlitou is the summer capital. But in terms of time, if Erlitou culture is related to summer, it can only be the summer after Shao Kang Zhongxing.

Mr. Xu Hong, the captain of Erlitou Archaeological Team, called Erlitou "the earliest China" and Mr. He Yi called Taosi "the earliest China". In any case, they are the shocking and epic prologue of "Chinese civilization".

Some people question "China has been up and down for five thousand years", while others obliterate the history of China before Yin Ruins. Although we have found the clues of civilization before Yin Ruins, it is still difficult for us to write a detailed early history due to the lack of direct written materials like Oracle Bone Inscriptions. Thankfully, from Liangzhu to Taosi to Erlitou, the early picture of Chinese civilization has indeed become clearer and clearer.

The length of flow: the continuation of China civilization

China civilization is famous for its continuity. The "Traceability Project of Chinese Civilization" implemented in recent years emphasizes that "Chinese civilization is one of the six major civilizations in the world and the only one that has never been interrupted and continues to this day". The so-called "six world civilizations" are the six primitive civilizations mentioned above.

The language and characters we use today have a consistent development vein for thousands of years. Even modern China people who haven't been trained in ancient Chinese characters can guess some Oracle Bone Inscriptions and inscriptions on bronze by their glyphs. However, the characters of ancient Indian Halaba civilization have not been deciphered so far. If materials such as Rosetta Stone and Bethesda Inscription are not found, the hieroglyphics of ancient Egypt and cuneiform characters in the two river basins may still be deciphered.

This is because people as carriers of civilization have changed. Egypt and the two river basins are now under the control of Arabs, and the language, writing and religion have already changed. As for the Halaba civilization, which is equivalent to the "Longshan Age" in China, it also died out for some reason. Indian civilization was created by Aryans.

How can China's civilization last for thousands of years?

Mr Tsung i Jao once pointed out that this is related to the characteristics of Chinese characters. European phonetic symbols adapt to languages, and with the differentiation of languages and the emergence of dialects, different writing systems have emerged. Chinese characters are a combination of form, sound and meaning, and have stronger stability. Although there are different dialects in China, the pronunciation of modern Chinese is far from that of ancient Chinese, but Chinese characters have narrowed the distance between China people in different times and regions.

Writing is an important carrier of civilization. Classics are passed down through words, and the national spirit continues through words. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty only respected Confucianism, which has since become a major part of Chinese civilization. Confucianism is the main successor of the three traditions.

Chinese characters can be traced back to Oracle Bone Inscriptions more than 3000 years ago at the latest, but Oracle Bone Inscriptions is only a merchant's divination record, because it is engraved on tortoise shells and animal bones, so it has been preserved to this day. Ancient philologists such as Li Xueqin and Qiu Xigui once pointed out that the main writing carrier of Shang Dynasty should be bamboo slips. Simplified books are perishable and difficult to preserve.

Oracle Bone Inscriptions is a mature writing system based on pictophonetic characters. It's hard to imagine that Chinese characters are born with white beards.

Many carved symbols have also been found in Liangzhu, Taosi and Erlitou sites, some of which can be read in sentences. These symbols exist in pottery, jade and other artifacts, and occasionally survive because of the particularity of the carrier. They are scattered and difficult to explain, but at least they remind us that the written history of China may be further traced.

After the collapse of some civilizations, the original people may still exist, but they are completely assimilated by the conquerors in culture. There have been many conquests and conquests in the history of China, but the civilization of China has not been broken.

A very important reason is that China is in a semi-closed state, with the sea in the east and the plateau and desert in the west. Although there is contact with civilizations in other regions, there is generally little communication and conflict between them. Although the Arab Empire was powerful, it did not bring crisis to Chinese civilization for various reasons. Important neighboring countries such as Persia maintained good diplomatic relations with ancient China for a long time.

As for the various ethnic groups in China, they have blended with each other for a long time and are the predecessors of the Chinese nation. Although different ethnic groups compete with each other, they generally have a profound recognition of "China" in the cultural sense. Therefore, no matter which nation established a dynasty, it consciously took over the baton of Chinese civilization.

The pattern of pluralism and strong cultural centripetal force is an important guarantee for the continuation of China civilization. It can be said that the endless river of Chinese civilization is largely determined by its origin period.