Representative philosophical and psychological views of ancient Greece and Rome are as follows

Taylor, 1

About 624-547 BC, the first philosopher in the West-(China Zhou Gongdan died about 1095 BC, Confucius 55 1-479 BC, 770-476 BC in the Spring and Autumn Period and 476-22 BC/year in the Warring States Period). The founder of Miletus School advocated that water is the basic element of all things, or called Physis, which opened up the research route of physis and was the beginning of western scientific thought and ancient Greek materialism philosophy. In addition, Thales believes that everything is animistic, such as magnets, and the world is full of gods or souls.

2. anaximander

People believe that everything exists in a simple element, but it is not water or anything we know. It is infinite, eternal and endless, surrounding the whole world. He also thinks that our world is one of many worlds.

Meta-quality can be transformed into various familiar essences (things), and they can all be transformed into each other.

The concept of "justice": "Everything is born, and everything will return to it after it is destroyed. This is stipulated by fate, because everything compensates for injustice in time order". The "justice" of the universe and the world seems to be that there is a certain proportion between all things, reaching an insurmountable balance, and so does God. Things are constantly moving and changing. In addition, anaximander thinks that the meta-mass is neutral, because otherwise, the rest can't exist.

3. anaximenes

It is believed that essence is qi, soul is qi, or thinned qi, when condensed, it first becomes water, then condenses into soil, and finally becomes stone. Therefore, all the differences between different substances (things) depend on the degree of coagulation, that is, the difference in dose can explain the difference in quality.

Second, empedocles.

The founder of empiricism believes that everything is composed of four unchangeable substances: earth, water, fire and air. He called it "Four Roots", which can't be changed by itself and needs the promotion of other things. This is love and hate. Love unites them, hate separates them. The human body is also composed of four roots, namely, the root of body soil, the root of liquid soil, the root of breath and the root of blood fire, all of which are related to thinking.

Interpretation of the sensory process: With the same knowledge (with the same parmenides), the roots in the body perceive the same roots in the external things. Foreign objects-ejecta-feeling pores-feeling, because different feelings have different pore sizes, thus forming different feelings, and the ejecta of the heart is thinking.

Third, democritus.

Atomism: The world is just composed of atoms and void. Atoms exist forever, move forever, and the number is infinite. The motion and contact of atoms constitute everything in the universe. Things are different because the number, size, shape, position and arrangement of atoms are different.

Mechanism: matter is always active and completely mechanical, so is psychological activity; The soul is a small and smooth atom, which spreads all over the body and keeps moving, producing life phenomena; Cognitive activity is the result of soul atoms in the body trying to contact with atomic groups from foreign objects, and the explanation of feelings is similar to that of empedocles.

Hedonism ethics: because the world is the result and process of mechanical movement, the universe itself has no purpose, only the laws of mechanical movement; In ethics, democritus believes that happiness is the purpose of life, and moderation and self-cultivation are the best means to obtain happiness.

Fourth, protect Gola.

About 4,865,438+0-465,438+0 BC, the first "wise man" in ancient Greece claimed that "man is the measure of all things" and man is the best judge of his own experience. There is no absolute difference between cultures, and the measure of things and life should be the degree of meeting human needs and happiness, which is the first place in humanistic psychology.

In addition, protet Gora believes that there is no difference between good and bad in life, and virtue can be cultivated through education.

& lt！ -[If! Support list]-> Part II: From orpheus to Stoicism.

First of all, Orfors religion

1, the God of the Olympics

They were not the only objects that the Greeks worshipped. They are human beings, some people are secular desires, but they are immortal and have superhuman strength. Their main task is to conquer the world, so they are the gods of conquerors and nobles; In addition, although they are gods, they must obey the existence of "fate", "necessity" and "destiny".

2. Dionysus Dionysus

The god worshipped by ordinary people was originally the dish god to protect the harvest. Later, people invented the method of brewing wine and gradually became Dionysus, also known as Dionysus or Dionysus God. The Greeks believe that drunkenness is sacred, and Dionysus symbolizes the sacred madness caused by drunkenness-revelry, passion and mystery. People hold Dionysian ceremonies every year, which may be the origin of carnival. People dance wildly in the barren hills and drink all night, as if they have entered a "carnival": its original intention is that God has entered the body of worshippers, and they believe that they have merged with God.

3. Orfors religion

Originated in Egypt, I believe in reincarnation. According to people's way of life in the world, the soul can get eternal happiness or endure eternal or temporary pain. Real life is more painful and boring. They think that people belong partly to the earth and partly to the sky. If they live purely, the part that belongs to the sky will increase and the part that belongs to the earth will decrease. This purification of the soul can be achieved by teaching rituals, avoiding eating meat, and living an ascetic life. So as to escape the cycle of life and death and achieve the state or purpose of unity with God; They also pursue that kind of "passionate state", believing that in this way, they can obtain mysterious knowledge that can't be obtained in ordinary ways.

Second, Pythagoras (about 580-500 BC)

1, everything is the mysterious meaning of numbers; He also linked the purity, precision, perfection and strictness of mathematics with theology, and believed that numbers and their relationships were the root of all things, and the world was made up of atoms arranged in various forms or relationships. It is believed that physics and aesthetics can be learned, grasped and understood through mathematics.

Geometry, such as Pythagoras law, Euclid geometry, etc. From axioms that are self-evident or considered self-evident, theorems far from self-evident are obtained, thus establishing a huge system. Because of the purity and perfection of mathematics, people think that there is a mysterious world beyond the knowable world behind it, so mathematics and theology can be linked.

2. Emphasize rationality

The knowledge of mathematics seems to be the most reliable and accurate, which is closely related to the real world. Mathematics is obtained through pure thinking and rational activities. So Pythagoras thinks that thought is higher than sensory experience, and intuition is higher than observation.

People grasp the complex world through reason and intuition, and know all kinds of fixed forms behind the world-mathematical relations. These are the facts. And these truths must be obtained through meditation, so that the life of meditation is the most valuable life.

Various systems inspired by Pythagoras "tend to be born, putting all values in the invisible unity of God, and dismissing the visible world as illusory, saying that it is a chaotic medium, in which the light from heaven is destroyed and blinded by fog and darkness."

3. The theory of soul reincarnation.

"There are three kinds of people in real life, just like there are three kinds of people in the Olympic Games. Those who come to do business belong to the lowest class, those who are taller than them come to participate in the competition, and then those at the highest class just come to see it. Therefore, the biggest purification in everything is the indifferent science. Only those who devote themselves to this cause, that is, real philosophers, can get rid of the' wheel of life'. "

Third, parmenides (about 570-480 BC)

Influenced by Pythagoras, parmenides thinks that the senses are deceptive, and those sensible things are simple illusions, such as cold and heat, water and ice. Contrary to Heraclitus, parmenides believed that nothing could be changed. Behind the so-called change is a real existence that does not change with time, and only reason can understand this real existence, that is, truth. Therefore, parmenides thinks that "thinking and existence are the same", and there are only things that can think and things that can't. Known as the founder of rationalism.

In psychology, parmenides thinks that the process of feeling is a process of knowing the same, and people perceive the objects outside the body with the same elements as everything in the body.

Four. Heraclitus (about 540-480 BC)

1, everything starts with fire

Everything is produced by fire, and it returns to fire. Everything is constantly changing like burning and extinguishing, and it is born when other things die. What is dead is immortal, and what is not dead is dead. The past, present and future of the world will always be an eternal living fire.

2. Theory of change and struggle

"One can never step into the same river twice", everything is flowing, nothing is eternal, nothing exists; There is a struggle between things, and the struggle is that everything has its own advantages and disadvantages, which makes things produce and destroy. Nothing is eternal: "War is the father and king of all things. It makes some people become gods, some people become people, some people become slaves, and some people become free people. "

3, the universe "justice"

Everything has its limits, and all kinds of opposites are transformed into each other, and neither side in the struggle of opposites will win completely.

4. Soul view

Heraclitus thinks that fire is noble and water is despicable. If there is the most fire in the soul, then the soul is "dry" and "dry soul is the smartest and best". For the soul, getting wet is happiness. For example, a person is drunk! When the soul becomes water, it means death. Therefore, the satisfaction of various desires is at the expense of the soul. "If a person's wishes are met, this is not a good thing!" Therefore, Heraclitus emphasizes people's control over themselves, the role of will, and the struggle against their psychological desires, and holds a proud ascetic ethics.

V Socrates and Plato

1, Socrates

In 469-399 BC, a famous wise man was declared "the smartest man" by God. His own explanation was that he knew his ignorance. He believes that there is a god who represents truth, goodness and beauty, and knowledge is innate and inherent in human reason. Education is to help people "recall" this knowledge and find their way home. Knowledge/wisdom can help people live a moral life, because he thinks truth, goodness and beauty are the same.

I believe that the body and the soul are completely different. The body is only the shelter of the soul, which will disappear, while the soul is real and eternal. If the soul strives for wisdom (knowledge of God, eternal things), it will not be polluted and will be pure. The soul who knows the truth will return to God and be with God after death.

Socrates was sued and sentenced to death by the Athenian parliament for corrupting the atmosphere and disrespecting God. And if he can bow his head and be less arrogant, he will not be sentenced to heavy punishment; And as long as he wants, he can escape, but Socrates is unwilling to escape, unwilling to compromise, and calmly die. He said, "The Athenians! I respect you and love you, but I will obey God, not you. " Before he died, he said, "It's time to die. Let's go our separate ways-I will die and you will live. Only God knows which is better. "

2. Plato

From 427 to 347 BC, Socrates' disciple, an aristocratic philosopher, was greatly influenced by Sparta. Main works: Republic, etc.

1) Utopia-the first Utopia

Based on Sparta, Sparta is an uncivilized city-state with relatively strong military strength. Slave agriculture, citizens' participation in wars, harsh selection and elimination from childhood, coupled with militarized management and training (as do women), have no private property, almost practice * * * productism, encourage childbearing, it is illegal to not get married, advocate force and honor, soldiers are brave, prefer death to escape, and are cowardly when fleeing, which is looked down upon by people.

Utopia: A "just" country where everyone does what suits him.

Man is divided into three grades: the king of philosophy, the warrior and the laborer. The king of philosophy is rational and pursues wisdom. Warriors have courage and pursue glory; Laborers indulge in lust and pursue happiness. Both soldiers and laborers should be ruled by the king of philosophy, that is, reason. Such a country is a just country, and everyone and everything belong to their own position or position.

2) idealism

Reality and phenomenon: Plato divides the world into two kinds, one is the world of senses and the other is the world of ideas. The sensory world is accidental, illusory and temporary, and the conceptual world is perfect, eternal and real. For example: cats, beds, etc. There are individual accidents, ideals and perfection.

Knowledge and viewpoint: Plato believes that knowledge corresponds to real things; Views correspond to accidental things; Knowledge about real/eternal things needs rationality, and views come from the senses; Knowledge is aimed at the truth itself, and opinions are aimed at all kinds of accidental individual things.

Philosophers are people who know the truth and love wisdom, while others are confused by the appearance of the world. "Cave metaphor", philosophers can recognize real things, while others regard the shadow of things as reality.

3) Immortality of soul and asceticism

Plato believed that the soul was created by God, so it was eternal. He longed to return to the gods. Death is the separation of body and soul. But only a pure soul can return to God.

The body has double evils. It is not only a distorted medium, but also the source of desire, which will make the soul addicted, lost and confused. People who corrode the soul will become women, animals, bees and ants. Only by purifying the soul can we know and understand eternal things. Therefore, only true philosophers can ascend to heaven after death, and only those who know the truth (eternal things) and die with completely pure souls can return to God and be with him.

Therefore, Plato advocated an ascetic ethics. "Every kind of happiness and pain is a nail that nails the soul to the body. Until the end, the soul becomes like the body, and no matter what the body determines is true, it also believes it. "

4) Views on sensory perception

Acquiring knowledge is the function of the mind, not the function of the senses. In other words, knowledge is not limited to perception, knowledge is innate, and acquisition is the result of mental memory. But the death or frequent contact between perceptual objects and ideas/knowledge may arouse the memory of the soul, which is the earliest description of Lenovo's similarity law or proximity law.

5) Summary

What is happiness? Justice, wealth, honesty and generosity

What is justice? Some people say that justice is the interest of the strong, and for the weak, justice is morality, law and fairness.

So what is justice? Justice is related to the relationship between people and social organizations.

Therefore, only by finding a just country can we find a justice that belongs to the people.

What is a just country like? -* * * Productive, harmonious and peaceful, everyone has his own position.

Why is there never a just country? -greed and luxury of human nature, competition and transactions lead to polarization between the rich and the poor, and the rule of the rich, oligarchy and social injustice lead to the establishment of revolutionary and democratic regimes, which are endless because of human nature. Because people are not fully educated, they can't choose the best rulers and managers, and they can't choose the best plan.

What should we do-let the people who are best at managing society come to power; At the same time, we should invent a method to prohibit incompetent and treacherous people from taking power, and to elect and train the best people to govern the country for the public interest.

How to educate and elect the best people and how to make people serve the interests of the public? -Educational, cultural and legal norms.

So, spread ethics, politics, psychology and so on.

"Justice means that everyone has his own thing and does his own thing." A just country means that everyone in every class is doing the job that his nature and talents are most suitable for.

Generally speaking, Plato's ideal country is relatively static: relatively static people, static society and static country!

Six, Aristotle

From 384 to 322 BC, Alexander the Great's teacher, whose book about the soul was the first psychological monograph.

1, a criticism of Plato's theory of "idea"

Aristotle believes that to define an idea or concept, or to classify it into a certain category, the general nature of the category is what it has; Or point out the difference between it and other similar things. For example, "Man is a rational animal".

Therefore, the concept/concept is any general term and a general title, but it is a subjective concept, not an objective existence. This is a name, not a reality. To understand the meaning of an idea/concept, we should go back to the thing itself, to nature and to reality.

2. Creative Biology

Aristotle believes that all kinds of life can exclude the classification system from low to high and from simple to complex, and there are approximations and gradual changes between them. The development of life is becoming more and more complex and powerful. With the increase of complexity of structure and variability of form, wisdom has also developed and its function has become more and more specialized. Finally, the mind and soul appeared.

3. Teleology

1) essence

Essence is defined by your nature. You are your attribute. Without it, you are no longer yourself.

2) Form and materials

Matter: a potential equivalent to form. Aristotle believes that substance becomes/realizes essence by virtue of form. For example, marble (substance) becomes a statue after being carved into a certain image. In Aristotle's view, form is more real than matter. There are more and more forms, less and less processing, and things become more and more knowable and have some properties.

3) Teleology

The whole universe and everything in it are developing towards something that is constantly getting better than the past; In other words, everything is driven by love for God. God is the purpose of all activities; Behind all movements and changes is the will of God. God is a pure form, a perfect and pure thought. Because thought is the best thing and cannot be changed.

4. In the soul

The soul is the form of the body, and the soul has two components, rational and irrational; Irrational souls include the growing part of plants (the growing soul) and the instinctive part of animals (the perceptual soul).

The function of soul can be divided into two categories, one is cognitive function, the other is dynamic function. The former includes feeling, memory, imagination and thinking. The latter includes desire, action, will and emotion. This is the earliest dichotomy between knowledge and meaning in the west.

Aristotle believes that rational soul, thinking and rational life are the most sacred things and are the characteristics of God. So they are immortal, and people with rational souls (that is, philosophers) are also the happiest.

5. Ethics

What is goodness? Aristotle believes that goodness is happiness, an activity of the soul, which is a rational life. The perfect life lies in engaging in the best activities, that is, meditation and meditation.

6. Feeling, memory and recollection

Aristotle defined feeling as discrimination function, which can be divided into five types: touch, taste, smell, hearing and vision. People can combine the impressions of various channels through * * * empathy (equivalent to the perception seen today).

Memory is passive regeneration, and memory is active, which requires thinking and reasoning. Similar, similar and opposite things help to remember. This is equivalent to the law of similarity, proximity and contrast in the law of association.

Seven, skepticism school

Founder Pyrrho (about 365-275 BC) believed that neither reason nor feeling can provide real knowledge. Therefore, people had better be skeptical about everything, keep silent and don't judge easily, so as to feel at ease. This is the purpose of life.

Eight, Epicurism

1, Epicurus

Epicurus (34 BC1-270 BC) was the founder of Epicurism. He was deeply influenced by Pyrrho School and emphasized the importance of obtaining peace of mind. However, Epicurus believed that true peace could not be obtained from doubt, but only from a correct understanding of the objective world.

Democritus's atomism is accepted, which holds that the human mind or soul is an extremely light and smooth atom, and the soul atom conducts the feelings and the mind from the senses, and the mind uses the conduction of the soul atom to promote the physical movement.

It is believed that sensation is the result of mutual contact between substances (atoms), and the atomic groups flowing out from the outside come into contact with human senses.

Epicurus believes that all feelings are accompanied by feelings of pain or happiness, while people prefer happiness to avoid pain. Pain is due to the disruption of the original proper atomic arrangement in the human body, while happiness is due to the restoration or new balance of this arrangement, or happiness mainly refers to the peace of mind.

2. Lucretius

About 98-53 BC, the successor of Epicurus wrote The Theory of Nature.

Nine, Stoicism

Zhi Nuo 1

About 336-264 BC, it was deeply influenced by Socrates.

1) cosmological determinism

Zhi Nuo believes that there are no accidents in the world, and natural processes are strictly determined by natural laws. The natural process is stipulated by a "legislator", who is also a benevolent providence (God, Zeus). This natural process starts with fire, ends with fire (the universe is burning), and then starts again, eternal cycle, endless cycle.

The whole universe, down to the smallest details, is designed or achieved by natural means, and everything has a purpose related to human beings. For example, chickens, ducks, cattle and sheep are used to eat, wild animals are used to test people's courage, and bedbugs make people unable to stay in bed.

2) Human freedom

"God" is the soul of the world, and everyone has a part of divinity. The so-called goodness means that the individual's life is in harmony with "nature" and conforms to its laws; In other words, the direction of individual will is consistent with the direction of the whole "natural" purpose, and human life is harmonious with "nature".

Virtue: Will is consistent with "nature". Zhi Nuo believes that only virtue is the only good, while others such as health, property and happiness are insignificant. Virtue lies in will, so all the real good and bad in life depend only on oneself. For example, Socrates chose death. Others can only control people's external things, including life, while virtue-the only good-depends entirely on the individual (will)! Therefore, as long as everyone can free himself from the worldly desires brought about by wrong judgment, he can get complete freedom!

Zhi Nuo believed in divination, astrology, etc. And think that they may help people understand the will of God.

3) Discussion about the mind

It is believed that the mind has eight parts, including five senses, reproductive ability, language ability and rationality. Reason is the highest part and resides in the heart. When a person is born, his heart is blank, and everything just comes from feeling. Feeling forms a concept, and reason also develops from feeling. Reason has internal and external activities, the former is the role of judgment and choice, and the latter is language expression. Psychological activities can be divided into cognition and emotion, and emotions can be divided into benign, normal, excessive and morbid.

2. Poseidon

About BC 135-5 1BC believed that the soul would continue to live in the air after death and remain there until the next cosmic fire. Although there is no hell, there is no good happiness after the death of bad people; Because sin is that the vapor of the soul becomes turbid, so that it cannot rise to the height of a good soul. The sinful soul will be reincarnated near the ground, while the truly virtuous soul will rise to the planet and watch the stars there, leisurely and eternal.

3. Epik Tus and Aurelius.

Epiktetos, about 60- 100 years old, is a philosopher born as a slave. He believes that in this world, everyone is a prisoner, imprisoned in the body of this world. Everyone is an actor in the play. God has assigned a role, and we have the responsibility to play our role well, no matter what role it is.

The philosopher Olelius (12 1- 180), who was born as an emperor, wrote Meditations, thinking that man is just a small soul with a corpse. People are doomed to die, so there is no need to be sad and painful, and there is no need to care; People may lose their lives at any time, so people should arrange their lives according to this situation. People think that living in harmony with the universe is beautiful, and living in harmony with the universe is the same thing as obeying God's will. Therefore, "no matter what you meet, it is always ready for you;" The causal implication is that the thread of your life has been woven. " "One's sin can't hurt others,"-because only virtue and a virtuous will are good; And he believes that God has appointed an elf as his patron saint for everyone.

Pythagoras believed that "everything