Was there a general named Cao Gangchuan in China?

The school founded by Confucius in the late Spring and Autumn Period in China. In the pre-Qin period, Confucianism was a university school in which a hundred schools of thought contended. The Qin dynasty "taught by law" and took officials as teachers, while the early Han dynasty respected Huang Lao, and Confucianism was once depressed. In the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's countermeasures, deposed hundreds of schools and respected Confucianism alone. Since then, Confucianism has ruled China's academic circles for more than 2,000 years before the May 4th Movement, which is the most influential and lasting thought in China's history.

Basic characteristics There are differences and opposites in political and philosophical views within Confucianism. But for more than 2000 years, as a school, it has the same characteristics in thought.

Confucius, the master, regarded his words and deeds as the highest criterion. ② Take poetry, calligraphy, yue, Li, Yi and Spring and Autumn as classics. (3) Advocating benevolence and righteousness as a code of conduct.

. (4) Maintain the ethical relationship between monarch and minister, father and son, husband and wife and brothers.

Creation and development creation

Confucianism is called "Confucianism" because its early members took Confucianism as their profession. Some scholars in modern times believe that the predecessor of "Confucianism" is witchcraft, history, desire and divination that served your family in ancient times; In spring and autumn

During the period of great social unrest, "Confucianism" lost its original position because they were familiar with aristocratic etiquette.

, with "ceremony" as the industry. According to this statement, at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, "Confucianism" refers to intellectuals who take mutual comity as their profession. Confucius took Confucianism as his profession in his early years. Besides knowing the etiquette of keeping in good health and death, he also has rich cultural knowledge.

Proficient in etiquette, music, shooting, imperial examinations, calligraphy and six arts. At 34, Meng

Uncle Jing from Nangong came to learn etiquette. Since then, the number of students has increased year by year. "Historical Records Confucius Family" records: "Confucius teaches with poetry, and his disciples cover 3,000 yuan. There are two people who are proficient in six arts." Thus formed a school with Confucius as the core. Later generations called it "Confucianism".

Differentiation and Development of Confucianism in the Warring States Period Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, tends to be conservative politically, but he has also made some progress. Although he didn't get rid of the traditional thought of destiny, he attached importance to personnel and didn't believe in ghosts and gods. Confucius' thoughts are various, and his disciples have different understandings of Confucius. After the death of Confucius, Confucianism, Zi Si Confucianism, Yan Confucianism, Meng Confucianism, Zhong Liang Confucianism, Yue Shi Confucianism were formed. The argument between them is also fierce. Mencius and Xunzi were the most important Confucianists in the Warring States Period. Mencius inherited Confucius' thought of benevolence and the idea of virtue and politics, and developed it into the theory of benevolence and politics. In philosophy, Mencius inherited Confucius' view of destiny. However, the elements of personality gods are eliminated, which endows heaven with moral attributes. He pays attention to human nature, advocates good nature, and believes that benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom are rooted in sex; The highest ideal of life is to know the sky through dedication and intellectuality, that is, to achieve the realm of harmony between man and nature. Xunzi, on the other hand, inherited Confucius' thought of valuing personnel over ghosts and gods, emphasized the distinction between heaven and man, and put forward the viewpoint of "controlling life and using it". He put forward the theory of evil nature, emphasizing the importance of processing and transforming human nature. Xunzi criticized Taoism, Mohism, Legalism, famous scholars and various schools within Confucianism. Meng and Xun are the representatives of the two schools of Confucianism in the pre-Qin period. They developed Confucius' thought from idealism and materialism respectively. Beyond Meng and Xun.

During the Warring States period, there were some Confucian scholars who explained the Book of Changes and produced it.

Yi Zhuan believes that everything in the universe is in eternal life and death, and the basis of change lies in the friction between yin and yang and rigidity and softness in the universe. Due to the development of representative figures such as Meng and Xun, the author of Yi Zhuan, Confucianism became a prominent school among the pre-Qin philosophers.

Changes of Confucianism in Qin and Han Dynasties Confucianism in Qin and early Han Dynasties was not used by rulers, but was suppressed and once depressed. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's idea, deposed a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone, and Confucianism flourished again. Since then, great changes have taken place in the field of China's thought, and the thoughts of Taoism, Legalism and Yin-Yang School have gradually merged with Confucianism. Confucianism has become an ideological synthesis based on Confucius and Mencius and integrating other theories. Confucianism has become a general term for ordinary intellectuals.

The main tasks of Confucianism in Han Dynasty are reading, interpreting, annotating and debating the classics. There are two kinds of Confucian classics in Han dynasty: ancient Confucian classics and modern Confucian classics. Ancient and modern Confucian classics not only use different words, but also study Confucian classics in different ways. There are many "very different meanings" in modern Confucian classics.

; Many detailed exegesis of China's classical works, its generation

The watch belongs to Dong Zhongshu. Out of political demands, he advocated that heaven is the personality god who dominates nature and the world, and the change of yin and yang and five elements is the reward and punishment of heaven. His philosophy is a combination of the Confucian concept of destiny and the thought of Yin-Yang and Five Elements. Later, I became fascinated with divination (see "The Science of Divination"). Confucianism in Han Dynasty systematized Confucian ethics into three cardinal principles and five permanents, which served the feudal ruling class for a long time.

In the Han Dynasty, other Confucian scholars, such as Yang Xiong, Huan Tan, Wang Chong and Zhong Changtong, criticized Dong Zhongshu's theory of harmony between man and nature and predicted superstition.

The Academic Status of Confucianism in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties

Confucian classics in Han dynasty

shortcomings

Many of them were complex in form and complicated in content, but in Wei and Jin Dynasties, they tended to decline and metaphysics took their place. Metaphysics is generally regarded as the revival of Taoism, but it does not rule out the important position of Confucianism in metaphysics. Metaphysics was developed with the help of Confucian Classics in Han Dynasty, Wang Bi's Notes on Zhouyi, The Analects of Confucius and Yanhe's Collection of Analects of Confucius.

, are the efforts made by metaphysicists for the classic metaphysics of Confucianism.

. The main Confucian classics Zhouyi, Laozi and Zhuangzi are called San Xuan. The existence and end of metaphysics comes from Laozi and Zhuangzi, but it is closely related to the thought of Yi Zhuan. During the period of metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, Confucianism developed greatly. It swept away the complexity of Confucian classics in Han dynasty, eliminated the mysterious elements such as the theory of the connection between man and nature in Confucian classics, and greatly improved the level of abstract thinking.

Confucian revival Buddhism was introduced into China in the Eastern Han Dynasty from the middle Tang Dynasty to the early Northern Song Dynasty, and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang Dynasties due to the advocacy of the rulers. It has become fashionable for some intellectuals to believe in Buddhism, and the position of Confucianism in the ideological circle has been impacted. In the middle Tang Dynasty, Han Yu put forward a proposal from the standpoint of Confucianism.

A Confucian "orthodoxy" from Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, and Confucius and Mencius, in order to compete with the Buddhist legal system. He believes that "releasing the old is more harmful than Echo Yang". Inherit Confucianism and Taoism

Take responsibility for yourself. Although Liu Zongyuan was a "good Buddha since childhood", he thought that the words of floating the country were "different from Confucius"

But he also took it as his duty to "carry forward the way of Confucius". In the early Northern Song Dynasty, Fan Zhongyan, Ouyang Xiu, Hu Yuan, Sun Fu, Shi Jie and others continued to advocate Confucianism and finally revived it.

The Rise and Development of Neo-Confucianism The orthodoxy developed into Neo-Confucianism in the mid-Northern Song Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism is a new stage in the development of Confucianism, which originated from Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in Zhu in the Southern Song Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism, centering on Confucianism, criticized Buddhism and Taoism and pushed China's ancient philosophy to a new peak. Neo-Confucianism can be divided into three schools according to the different answers to the origin of the world: one school takes qi as the ontology of the universe

; One school regards reason as the ontology of the universe; One school takes the heart as the ontology of the universe. Zhang Zai is a representative of the school whose ontology is Qi.

. He put forward that "too empty is qi", "qi can't be aggregated into everything, and everything can't be scattered into too empty", and insisted on the monism of qi. However, Zhang Zai's theory of human nature contains a lot of idealism. Cheng Yi and Zhu are the representatives of the school whose ontology is reason. They believe that everything is generated by reason and spirit, reason precedes spirit, and reason is fundamental. Zhu Cheng School became Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties because of its rigorous and complete thought, which was conducive to maintaining feudal autocratic rule.

three

The official philosophy of this generation. The school with the heart as its ontology is Lu Wang School. Lu Jiuyuan is in charge of the mind, while Wang Shouren is in charge of nothingness and irrationality outside the mind. Lu Wang School emphasized the role of subjective will, which had an important social impact and reached its peak in a period after the middle of Ming Dynasty.

Criticism and Decline of Confucianism In the late Ming Dynasty, capitalist relations of production sprouted in China. Confucianism, as the defender of feudal order, became a shackle that bound people's thoughts, so it was criticized by some thinkers in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Criticism of Confucianism,

It was originally developed within Confucianism. Thinkers such as Chen Que, Huang Zongxi, Gu and Wang Fuzhi in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties severely criticized decadent Confucianism from different angles for being divorced from reality and talking about life.

Severely criticize. 1840 after the opium war, the leaders of the peasant revolution in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom used the equality thought of primitive Christianity as a weapon and opposed Confucianism. Some advanced figures among the literati, such as Yan Fu and Kang Youwei, introduced western evolutionism and bourgeois democratic thought, which is called new learning. In the struggle against new learning, Confucianism is even more vulnerable. At the climax of the democratic revolution, bourgeois democratic revolutionaries such as Zhang and others criticized Confucianism further. Finally, the May 4th Movement of 19 19 thoroughly criticized Confucianism, and the dominance of Confucianism finally ended.

Historical Position Confucianism ruled China for more than two thousand years. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, was honored as a saint by feudal rulers.

In the long history, Confucianism has made brilliant contributions to the cultural development of the Chinese nation and the cultivation of the spirit of self-improvement of the Chinese nation.

However, due to the long-term use by feudal rulers, with the continuous development of productive forces, Confucianism gradually became the shackles of the feudal ruling class to imprison people's thoughts, which seriously hindered the development of China society.

dao jia xue pai

Ancient China

One of the main schools of philosophy. The school takes Tao as the world.

The origin of the world, hence the name. Taoism came into being in the late Spring and Autumn Period and is one of hundred schools of thought. It was originally called a moralist (see Sima Tan's "On the Essentials of the Six Classics"), and the literary house began to praise it. The founder of Taoism is Laozi, and the main representative is Yin.

Zhuangzi, Meng Peng, Tian Ji and so on. Taoism regards Tao as the origin and universal law of the world, and holds that heaven does nothing and Tao is natural. On this basis, it puts forward political and military strategies such as doing nothing, respecting women, and combining rigidity with softness.

Laozi initiated the idea of taking Tao as the origin of the world, and put forward that "Tao gives birth to one, two, three and all things". It is believed that everything originates from Tao and returns to Tao.

And Tao is eternal. Laozi also believes that Tao is a universal law, "man should be based on the earth, the earth should be based on the sky, the sky should be based on the Tao, and the Tao should be based on nature". Laozi put forward the "anti-Tao movement"

It is believed that existence, rigidity, strength and wealth are interdependent and mutually transformed, but it is advocated that "the way of saints is to fight for it", and the guiding ideology is to govern by doing nothing, and to defeat the strong with the weak politically and militarily. In the aspect of epistemology, it emphasizes the cognitive method of "clear metaphysics" and advocates "abandoning wisdom for wisdom" and "making people ignorant and have no desire"

Zhuangzi inherited Laozi's thought, further emphasized the nihility and mystery of Tao, and pointed out that "Fu Tao, who loves and believes, does nothing without seeing; It can be transmitted but not received, but it can be obtained but not seen ... ",advocating" the Tao cannot be heard "and" the Tao cannot be seen "

"Tao is not a proper name" and thinks that Tao is "ubiquitous". Zhuangzi also developed Laozi's dialectics into relativism sophistry, and advocated that "everything is noble and low" and "everything is together". He emphasized the relativity of cognition and the contradiction of logical thinking, thus reaching the conclusion of agnosticism. Zhuangzi's social ethics developed Laozi's thought of valuing softness and protecting women. On the one hand, he advocates "keeping pace with the times" and completely obeys nature; On the other hand, he pursues the "ultimate human" realm of coexistence with heaven and earth and unity with everything. Laozi and Zhuangzi come down in one continuous line, forming the Laozi and Zhuangzi school within Taoism. Laozi, Zhuangzi and Liezi are the main works of Taoism in Laozi and Zhuangzi. Huang Lao Xue is another important school of Taoism. The study of Huang Lao absorbed and transformed Laozi's Taoist thought, and some scholars gave a materialistic explanation of Taoism. For example, "Guanzi" gives play to Laozi's thought that "Tao is a thing" ... and there is essence in it, suggesting that essence is the origin of all things in the universe; "Huai Nan Zi Yuan Dao Xun" thinks that "

Tao "contains yin and yang."

Unified object. However, some scholars still regard Tao as a nihilistic noumenon. Another feature of Huang Lao's research lies in his political thought, which is based on the traditional Taoist view of governing by doing nothing, and combines the Confucian thought of benevolent government, the legalist thought of ruling by law and the famous scholar's thought of punishing names, and puts forward the political thought of doing nothing different from the Laozi and Zhuangzi school. The study of Huang Lao was once highly praised by the rulers in the early Han Dynasty, and gradually declined in the period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. The main works of the Huang-Lao School include Shangxiaxin, Baixin and Neigong in Guanzi Huainan Zi Jing Fa.

Taoism has exerted an important influence on China's philosophy and even China's culture. Unofficial Confucian thinkers in Han Dynasty, such as Yang Xiong, Wang Chong and Huan Tan, inherited Taoism. Taoism became an important theoretical source of metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties. Although Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties was orthodox, it also absorbed Taoism. Taoism also had an important influence on the formation and development of Taoism and Buddhism in China.

mohists

One of the main schools of China's ancient philosophy. It was produced in the Warring States Period. This school was founded by Mo Zhai (see Mozi), hence its name. Mohism is a disciplined academic group, and its leader is called "Mozi". Its members must carry out Mohism when they go to various countries to be officials, and their salaries must also be dedicated to the group. Mohist school is divided into early and late periods, and its early thoughts mainly involve social politics, ethics and epistemology. In the later period, Mohism made an important contribution to logic.

Mohism in the early period had a great influence in the early Warring States period, and it was also called a prominent school with Confucianism. Its social ethics takes universal love as the core, advocates "the two are easy to change" and opposes the social hierarchy concept emphasized by Confucianism. It puts forward "mutual love and mutual benefit" and regards Shang Xian, Shang Tong, frugality and funeral as the way to govern the country. He also opposed the annexation war at that time and put forward the idea of self-destruction. It advocates non-destiny, ambition and knowing ghosts. On the one hand, it denies the destiny, while at the same time acknowledging the existence of ghosts and gods. In the early stage, Mohism put forward a cognitive method based on experience in epistemology.

Advocating "hearing and seeing" and "naming by reality". Three tables are put forward as a method to test the correctness of understanding.

The inheritance of Mohism in the later period is unknown, and there are two or three schools. It inherited the early Mohist social ethics and made great achievements in epistemology and logic. Later Mohism not only affirmed the role of sensory experience in cognition.

It also recognizes the role of rational thinking in cognition and overcomes the empiricism tendency of early Mohism. It also clearly defines the basic categories of ancient logic, such as reason, reason and class, and distinguishes three concepts, such as "Da", "Class" and "Private".

The forms of judgment and reasoning are also studied, which occupies an important position in the history of ancient logic in China.

The main ideas of Mohism are concentrated in the book Mozi, among which six works, such as Shang Jing, Xia Jing, Shangshuo, Xiashuo, Daqu and Xiaoqu, are also called Mohist Debates, which are generally considered to be written by Mohism in the later period.

Legalist school

China was an important school with the rule of law as its core during the Warring States Period. Its ideological pioneers can be traced back to Guan Zhong and Zi Chan in the Spring and Autumn Period. The actual founders were Li Kui, Wuqi, Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai in the early Warring States Period. Han Fei at the end of the Warring States period was a master of legalist thought. The representative works of Legalists include The Book of the Lord of Shang and Everything goes wrong. Although there are different views within the Legalists, they all advocate "law" to govern the country. Qi legalists advocated paying equal attention to law and etiquette, putting morality first and giving birth to law by Tao. Legalists in Qin Jin advocated severe punishment and strict law, opposed the preaching of propriety, justice and benevolence, emphasized law, skill and potential, and rewarded the battle of farming, making Qiang Bing a rich country and integrated with the world. Generally speaking, Shang Yang emphasized "law".

Shen Buhai emphasized "technique" and Shen Dao emphasized "potential", while Han Fei integrated law, technique and potential, absorbed Taoist thought and systematized the theory of rule of law. Politically, he advocated strengthening the centralization of monarchy, cutting off private forces, "teaching by law", rewarding and punishing heavily, and rewarding agricultural warfare. In the view of history, he put forward the viewpoints of "repairing the past and meeting unexpectedly" and "Time waits for no one, but changes when prepared". Philosophically, "Tao" is the general law of the development of all things, and "reason" is the special law of individual things, which emphasizes that people must follow objective laws to carry out activities. In epistemology, he put forward a "reference" method to test whether people's words and deeds are correct with the actual effect of "action". Legalists' theory of rule of law played an important role in the feudal reform during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Even Qin Shihuang unified the six countries and established a centralized feudal country, which became the ruling thought of the Qin Dynasty. After the Western Han Dynasty, legalists were absorbed by Confucianism and brought into the theoretical system of combining morality with punishment, and independent legalists gradually disappeared.

the Yin-Yang School

Schools of ancient philosophy in China. It is named after the theory of yin-yang and five elements as the central idea. Its representative figures are also called Yin-Yang Family and Five Elements Family. It is said that it was transformed from ancient astronomers and astrologers. During the Warring States Period, the theory of Yin-Yang and Five Elements was very popular. Book of Rites, Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals, etc. The theory of Yin-Yang and Five Elements is used to explain the change of four seasons, and the school represented by Zou Yan uses the theory of Yin-Yang and Five Elements to explain the change of dynasties. In the theory of Yin and Yang, ancient scientific knowledge is mixed with superstitious divination and witchcraft, on the one hand, it summarizes the ancient knowledge about the operation and change of astronomical phenomena and the law of crop growth.

It is explained by the rise and fall of yin and yang, and the five elements produce grams.

The change of things has simple dialectical thinking; And compare the changes of astronomical phenomena with personnel, and publicize the idealistic concept of heaven and man induction. The influence of Yin and Yang family on later generations is also very complicated, which inspires Wang Chong and others' view of heaven and man, and is also used by Dong Zhongshu and others to demonstrate divination superstition. Many of the works of Yin and Yang have been lost, leaving only the works of various schools.

Vertical and horizontal

During the Warring States Period, China was a counselor who lobbied the princes and engaged in political and diplomatic activities with the strategy of vertical and horizontal cooperation. Be listed as one of the schools of thought. The main representatives are Su Qin and Yi Cheung. During the Warring States period, the north and south were vertical and the east and west were horizontal. Su Qin advocated that Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu should unite to repel Qin, while Zhang Yi tried to break the alliance. The six countries of Lian Heng were under the control of Qin respectively, hence the name. Their activities had an important influence on the changes of political and military structure during the Warring States period. There are a lot of records about its activities in the Warring States Policy. According to the Records of Hanshu Yiwenzhi, strategists wrote Sixteen Books and Seventeen Articles.

Military strategist

China studied military theory in the pre-Qin and early Han dynasties, and was a school engaged in military activities. One out of a hundred. According to the Records of Literature and Art in Hanshu, military strategists can be divided into four categories: military strategists, military strategists, military yin and yang strategists and military strategists. The representatives of military strategists are Sun Wu and Sima Yi in the Spring and Autumn Period, Sun Bin, Wuqi, Liao Wei, Gongsun Yang, Zhao She and Bai Qi in the Warring States Period, and Sean and Han Xin in the early Han Dynasty. There is a military strategist's book "The Art of War" today.

Sun Bin's The Art of War, Woods, Tamia Liu and Wei Liaozi. The works of military strategists contain rich simple materialism and dialectics.

Agricultural family

China was a school that attached importance to agricultural production during the Warring States Period. One out of a hundred.

. "Han Shu Literature and Art" holds that "farmers flow because officials plow millet and sow 100 grains, and persuade them to plow mulberry to get enough food and clothing, so eight policies are one for food and the other for goods. Confucius said:

: "What do people eat". This is also its strength. "Recorded a farmer's book" Shennong "

","The Book of Winning "and so on. , has been lost. "Mencius on Teng Wengong" contains the words of the farmer Xu Xing, saying that Xu Xing is "for the words of Shennong" and advocates that the monarch "cultivates with the people and eats with food, and treats the people with food". Expressed the views of small agricultural producers. In addition, "Going to Agriculture" and "Man and Land" in Guanzi Yuan Di and Lv Chunqiu are also important materials for studying farmers in the pre-Qin period. Farmers have a certain degree of dialectical thinking.

His views and opinions have certain progressive significance.

eclecticism

Schools of China Philosophy from the Late Warring States Period to the Early Han Dynasty. Good at learning from others. Characterized by "Confucianism and Mohism, the method of combining names", "

All schools are connected and extend in all directions.

"。 Han Shuzhi listed it as one of the "Nine Rivers". The emergence of miscellaneous schools is the result of ideological and cultural integration in the process of establishing a unified feudal country. Essays represented by Lv Chunqiu in Qin Dynasty and Huainanzi in Western Han Dynasty were collected by Lv Buwei in Qin Dynasty and Liu An, King of Huainan in Han Dynasty. They are eclectic and a hundred schools of thought contend, but they are a bit too complicated. Also, because the miscellaneous works contain Taoist thoughts, some people think that miscellaneous works are actually a new Taoist school. Confucianists

The school founded by Confucius in the late Spring and Autumn Period in China. In the pre-Qin period, Confucianism was a university school in which a hundred schools of thought contended. The Qin dynasty "taught by law" and took officials as teachers, while the early Han dynasty respected Huang Lao, and Confucianism was once depressed. In the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's countermeasures, deposed hundreds of schools and respected Confucianism alone. Since then, Confucianism has ruled China's academic circles for more than 2,000 years before the May 4th Movement, which is the most influential and lasting thought in China's history.

Basic characteristics There are differences and opposites in political and philosophical views within Confucianism. But for more than 2000 years, as a school, it has the same characteristics in thought.

Confucius, the master, regarded his words and deeds as the highest criterion. ② Take poetry, calligraphy, yue, Li, Yi and Spring and Autumn as classics. (3) Advocating benevolence and righteousness as a code of conduct.

. (4) Maintain the ethical relationship between monarch and minister, father and son, husband and wife and brothers.

Creation and development creation

Confucianism is called "Confucianism" because its early members took Confucianism as their profession. Some scholars in modern times believe that the predecessor of "Confucianism" is witchcraft, history, desire and divination that served your family in ancient times; In spring and autumn

During the period of great social unrest, "Confucianism" lost its original position because they were familiar with aristocratic etiquette.

, with "ceremony" as the industry. According to this statement, at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, "Confucianism" refers to intellectuals who take mutual comity as their profession. Confucius took Confucianism as his profession in his early years. Besides knowing the etiquette of keeping in good health and death, he also has rich cultural knowledge.

Proficient in etiquette, music, shooting, imperial examinations, calligraphy and six arts. At 34, Meng

Uncle Jing from Nangong came to learn etiquette. Since then, the number of students has increased year by year. "Historical Records Confucius Family" records: "Confucius teaches with poetry, and his disciples cover 3,000 yuan. There are two people who are proficient in six arts." Thus formed a school with Confucius as the core. Later generations called it "Confucianism".

Differentiation and Development of Confucianism in the Warring States Period Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, tends to be conservative politically, but he has also made some progress. Although he didn't get rid of the traditional thought of destiny, he attached importance to personnel and didn't believe in ghosts and gods. Confucius' thoughts are various, and his disciples have different understandings of Confucius. After the death of Confucius, Confucianism, Zi Si Confucianism, Yan Confucianism, Meng Confucianism, Zhong Liang Confucianism, Yue Shi Confucianism were formed. The argument between them is also fierce. Mencius and Xunzi were the most important Confucianists in the Warring States Period. Mencius inherited Confucius' thought of benevolence and the idea of virtue and politics, and developed it into the theory of benevolence and politics. In philosophy, Mencius inherited Confucius' view of destiny. However, the elements of personality gods are eliminated, which endows heaven with moral attributes. He pays attention to human nature, advocates good nature, and believes that benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom are rooted in sex; The highest ideal of life is to know the sky through dedication and intellectuality, that is, to achieve the realm of harmony between man and nature. Xunzi, on the other hand, inherited Confucius' thought of valuing personnel over ghosts and gods, emphasized the distinction between heaven and man, and put forward the viewpoint of "controlling life and using it". He put forward the theory of evil nature, emphasizing the importance of processing and transforming human nature. Xunzi criticized Taoism, Mohism, Legalism, famous scholars and various schools within Confucianism. Meng and Xun are the representatives of the two schools of Confucianism in the pre-Qin period. They developed Confucius' thought from idealism and materialism respectively. Beyond Meng and Xun.

During the Warring States period, there were some Confucian scholars who explained the Book of Changes and produced it.

Yi Zhuan believes that everything in the universe is in eternal life and death, and the basis of change lies in the friction between yin and yang and rigidity and softness in the universe. Due to the development of representative figures such as Meng and Xun, the author of Yi Zhuan, Confucianism became a prominent school among the pre-Qin philosophers.

Changes of Confucianism in Qin and Han Dynasties Confucianism in Qin and early Han Dynasties was not used by rulers, but was suppressed and once depressed. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's idea, deposed a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone, and Confucianism flourished again. Since then, great changes have taken place in the field of China's thought, and the thoughts of Taoism, Legalism and Yin-Yang School have gradually merged with Confucianism. Confucianism has become an ideological synthesis based on Confucius and Mencius and integrating other theories. Confucianism has become a general term for ordinary intellectuals.

The main tasks of Confucianism in Han Dynasty are reading, interpreting, annotating and debating the classics. There are two kinds of Confucian classics in Han dynasty: ancient Confucian classics and modern Confucian classics. Ancient and modern Confucian classics not only use different words, but also study Confucian classics in different ways. There are many "very different meanings" in modern Confucian classics.

; Many detailed exegesis of China's classical works, its generation

The watch belongs to Dong Zhongshu. Out of political demands, he advocated that heaven is the personality god who dominates nature and the world, and the change of yin and yang and five elements is the reward and punishment of heaven. His philosophy is a combination of the Confucian concept of destiny and the thought of Yin-Yang and Five Elements. Later, I became fascinated with divination (see "The Science of Divination"). Confucianism in Han Dynasty systematized Confucian ethics into three cardinal principles and five permanents, which served the feudal ruling class for a long time.

In the Han Dynasty, other Confucian scholars, such as Yang Xiong, Huan Tan, Wang Chong and Zhong Changtong, criticized Dong Zhongshu's theory of harmony between man and nature and predicted superstition.

The Academic Status of Confucianism in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties

Confucian classics in Han dynasty

shortcomings

Many of them were complex in form and complicated in content, but in Wei and Jin Dynasties, they tended to decline and metaphysics took their place. Metaphysics is generally regarded as the revival of Taoism, but it does not rule out the important position of Confucianism in metaphysics. Metaphysics was developed with the help of Confucian Classics in Han Dynasty, Wang Bi's Notes on Zhouyi, The Analects of Confucius and Yanhe's Collection of Analects of Confucius.

, are the efforts made by metaphysicists for the classic metaphysics of Confucianism.

. The main Confucian classics Zhouyi, Laozi and Zhuangzi are called San Xuan. The existence and end of metaphysics comes from Laozi and Zhuangzi, but it is closely related to the thought of Yi Zhuan. During the period of metaphysics in Wei and Jin Dynasties, Confucianism developed greatly. It swept away the complexity of Confucian classics in Han dynasty, eliminated the mysterious elements such as the theory of the connection between man and nature in Confucian classics, and greatly improved the level of abstract thinking.

Confucian revival Buddhism was introduced into China in the Eastern Han Dynasty from the middle Tang Dynasty to the early Northern Song Dynasty, and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang Dynasties due to the advocacy of the rulers. It has become fashionable for some intellectuals to believe in Buddhism, and the position of Confucianism in the ideological circle has been impacted. In the middle Tang Dynasty, Han Yu put forward a proposal from the standpoint of Confucianism.

A Confucian "orthodoxy" from Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, and Confucius and Mencius, in order to compete with the Buddhist legal system. He believes that "releasing the old is more harmful than Echo Yang". Inherit Confucianism and Taoism

Take responsibility for yourself. Although Liu Zongyuan was a "good Buddha since childhood", he thought that the words of floating the country were "different from Confucius"

But he also took it as his duty to "carry forward the way of Confucius". In the early Northern Song Dynasty, Fan Zhongyan, Ouyang Xiu, Hu Yuan, Sun Fu, Shi Jie and others continued to advocate Confucianism and finally revived it.

The Rise and Development of Neo-Confucianism The orthodoxy developed into Neo-Confucianism in the mid-Northern Song Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism is a new stage in the development of Confucianism, which originated from Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in Zhu in the Southern Song Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism, centering on Confucianism, criticized Buddhism and Taoism and pushed China's ancient philosophy to a new peak. Neo-Confucianism can be divided into three schools according to the different answers to the origin of the world: one school takes qi as the ontology of the universe

; One school regards reason as the ontology of the universe; One school takes the heart as the ontology of the universe. Zhang Zai is a representative of the school whose ontology is Qi.

. He put forward that "too empty is qi", "qi can't be aggregated into everything, and everything can't be scattered into too empty", and insisted on the monism of qi. However, Zhang Zai's theory of human nature contains a lot of idealism. Cheng Yi and Zhu are the representatives of the school whose ontology is reason. They believe that everything is generated by reason and spirit, reason precedes spirit, and reason is fundamental. Zhu Cheng School became Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties because of its rigorous and complete thought, which was conducive to maintaining feudal autocratic rule.

three

The official philosophy of this generation. The school with the heart as its ontology is Lu Wang School. Lu Jiuyuan is in charge of the mind, while Wang Shouren is in charge of nothingness and irrationality outside the mind. Lu Wang School emphasized the role of subjective will, which had an important social impact and reached its peak in a period after the middle of Ming Dynasty.

Criticism and Decline of Confucianism In the late Ming Dynasty, capitalist relations of production sprouted in China. Confucianism, as the defender of feudal order, became a shackle that bound people's thoughts, so it was criticized by some thinkers in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Criticism of Confucianism,

It was originally developed within Confucianism. Thinkers such as Chen Que, Huang Zongxi, Gu and Wang Fuzhi in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties severely criticized the decadent Confucianism from different angles for being divorced from reality and talking about life.

Severely criticize. 1840 after the opium war, the leaders of the peasant revolution in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom used the equality thought of primitive Christianity as a weapon and opposed Confucianism. Some advanced figures among the literati, such as Yan Fu and Kang Youwei, introduced western evolutionism and bourgeois democratic thought, which is called new learning. In the struggle against new learning, Confucianism is even more vulnerable. At the climax of the democratic revolution, bourgeois democratic revolutionaries such as Zhang and others criticized Confucianism further. Finally, the May 4th Movement of 19 19 thoroughly criticized Confucianism, and the dominance of Confucianism finally ended.

Historical Position Confucianism ruled China for more than two thousand years. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, was honored as a saint by feudal rulers.

In the long history, Confucianism has made brilliant contributions to the cultural development of the Chinese nation and the cultivation of the spirit of self-improvement of the Chinese nation.

However, due to the long-term use by feudal rulers, with the continuous development of productive forces, Confucianism gradually became the shackles of the feudal ruling class to imprison people's thoughts, which seriously hindered the development of China society.

dao jia xue pai

Ancient China

One of the main schools of philosophy. The school takes Tao as the world.

The origin of the world, hence the name. Taoism came into being in the late Spring and Autumn Period and is one of hundred schools of thought. It was originally called a moralist (see Sima Tan's "On the Essentials of the Six Classics"), and the literary house began to praise it. The founder of Taoism is Laozi, and the main representative is Yin.

Zhuangzi, Meng Peng, Tian Ji and so on. Taoism regards Tao as the origin and universal law of the world, and holds that heaven does nothing and Tao is natural. On this basis, it puts forward political and military strategies such as doing nothing, respecting women, and combining rigidity with softness.