Introduction and details of Ce Shen.

Ce Shen divided sub-valleys into sub-valleys, sub-valleys, toilet valleys, grass valleys, pit valleys and pits. The whole world says that he can be a prophet, and he worships God and divines at home. Zi Gu, according to legend, was a native of Tang Dynasty, surnamed He Mingmei, a native of Shandong. She is outstanding in talent and appearance. First, he married a player, and later he was taken by Li Jing, the secretariat of Shouyang. Then she killed her husband as a concubine and was jealous by Li Jing's first wife. On the night of Lantern Festival on the fifteenth day of the first month, she plotted to kill He Mei in the toilet. He Mei's ghost haunts, often appearing faintly, singing and crying. As a result, the heaven learned that the Emperor had pity on him and named him Ce Shen. In addition, Zi Gu is the concubine of Liu Bang. Lv Hou cut off her hands and feet, shaved her hair, gouged out her eyes, deaf her ears, and threw them into the toilet for ministers to visit as "ladies". People were very sympathetic and made a monument to God. It is also said that the Three Empresses in the Pit are three girls, referring to three sisters, Zhao Gongming and the God of Wealth, namely Xiao Yun, Xiao Qiong and Bixiao, who were named gods by Jiang Ziya. This statement comes from the Ming Dynasty novel Romance of Gods.

Zigong, Ce Shen, China, the ancient folk gods, can be described as varied, even every household has a toilet, but also to worship the gods; The god in charge of the toilet is called "Ce Shen", and she is a woman. The legendary female toilet god, named Zi Gu, was born in the Tang Dynasty. Her real name is He, her name is Mei, and her word is Li Qing. She was smart and eager to learn, read and write, and married a singer when she grew up.

During the reign of Wu Zetian in the Tang Dynasty, Li Jing, the secretariat of Shouyang, killed He Mei's husband and then took her as his concubine. He Mei is young and beautiful, and she is envied by her original wife at Li Jing's home. Soon, the first wife was cruel and killed He Mei in the toilet on the night of the fifteenth day of the first month.

He Mei died with an injustice, and the ghost lingered. Every time Li Jing goes to the toilet, she hears crying, and He Mei often appears, making a gesture of "shouting with a weapon". When Wu Zetian heard about this incident, she sympathized with Zi Gu's experience and ordered him to be named "Ce Shen". Later, the world made paper figures or wooden figures according to the appearance of He Mei and put them in the toilet. On the night of the Lantern Festival on the 15th day of the first month, on the one hand, they offered sacrifices, on the other hand, they greeted Ce Shen's daughter-in-law. During the sacrifice, people murmured, "Zi Xu is not here, nor is Cao Fu. Sister-in-law can go out." Zi Xu refers to Cao Fu, the eldest wife and sister-in-law of Excavate and Excavate, that is, He Mei. Legend has it that Zigu has a good gas field. If she can predict everything about Ce Shen, she can know the good and the bad.

Zi Gushen's belief in God existed in the Six Dynasties and prevailed in the Tang and Song Dynasties until the Qing Dynasty. A collection of ancient and modern books. The Miraculous Classic (Volume 40) quotes from Wonderland: "There is a son and aunt in the world, who is said to have been a concubine in ancient times and is jealous of a big woman. She died on the fifteenth night of the first month. Later generations made sacrifices and said,' While Zi Xu is away, Cao Fu will go, and my sister-in-law can go out.' Whoever caught it thought God was coming. To illustrate many things. Xu, the name of the husband is also. Cao Fu, a big woman. "I quoted Yi Xian Lu again:" Zi Gu, from Laiyang, surnamed He Mingmei, the word Li Qing. Shouyang Li Jingna is a concubine. His wife was jealous and died in the toilet on the fifteenth day of the first month. God pitied him and named him Ce Shen. Therefore, the world creates its shape and worships the toilet at night to occupy everything. The common name of three aunts and six grandmothers. The Chronicle of Jingchu written by Liang Zonggu in the Southern Dynasties: "Welcome to Zigu on the evening of 15th, and predict the future sericulture, which will take up more business. "Shen Songkuo's Meng Qian Bi Tan Volume 21:" It is an old custom to meet Ce Shen on a moonlit night. It doesn't have to be in the first month. You can call anytime. "Huang Lun Shuo Shi Zhen Ji in Qing Dynasty": "Today, on the Shangyuan Festival, we are welcoming women. Methods: Take a dung dustpan the day before, decorate it with a hairpin ring, mark it with flowers, and insert a silver hairpin into the dustpan for one side of the toilet. Another confession is set up, candles are lit to burn incense, and children salute. "

According to: At least in the Southern Dynasties, there were records about Zi Gu. However, the statement of concubine Li Jing, the secretariat of Shouyang, said that Wu Zetian had been hanging on the arch for three years.

In the Tang Dynasty, Ce Shen still had the custom of inviting "Gucci Ce Shen". (Gucci is also called Gucci, which may be the cause of homophonic) "Is the moon order generalized? The Order of the First Month states that Gaihan's wife died in the toilet, which is the god invited by the Lantern Festival in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, all those invited are invited to the toilet. "Aunt Ce Shen, originally from Liu Bang's princess Lv Hou, persecuted Liu Bang's concubine and wife and conferred the title of Crown Prince.

Lu held a grudge against Mrs. Qi, and after Liu Bang's death, he took revenge step by step. First he was punished as a slave, then his hair was cut off, his ears were deaf, and then he was forced to drink dumb poison. Finally, Mrs. Qi's eyes were brutally gouged out and thrown into the toilet, tortured to death, and made a "human pig" for Mrs. Qi (that is, a "human pig"). The most unbearable thing is that when Mrs. Qi wandered in the toilet, Lu actually let his son Han and his ministers watch the horror before "Man Man" died. Later generations sympathized with Mrs. Qi's tragic experience and renamed her son Gucci Gu.

Empress Ce Shen's toilet and pigsty must be quiet to attract her daughter-in-law. "Miscellaneous Five Elements Book" said: "Ce Shen's name is Hou Di." "Different Garden" said: "Tao Kan went to the toilet one night and saw a man who claimed to be the queen emperor, wearing a single coat and a flat headscarf, and said to Tao Kan,' If you don't talk within three years, it will be expensive in the future. ""(later, Tao Kan really became a big official) unless the immortal of the Houdi Fuzi Valley said this!

Besides Zi Gu and Gucci, San Xiao sissy is called Ce Shen in some areas. "Romance of the Gods" contains: Miss KengSan is three fairies of Xiao Yun, Xiao Qiong and Bixiao on Sanxian Island. They have a brother, Zhao Gongming, who studied Taoism in Luofu Cave in Emei Mountain.

When attacking Shang and Zhou, he refused to help the merchants of Shang and Zhou, and was killed by Zhou. The brothers of three sisters in Xiao Yun had bad news. They got together to do business and avenge their brother. At first, they fought with mixed bucket and scissors, and won many victories. After the Yuan Dynasty, the Buddha and Laozi came to rescue the scene and used magic to fight and cut off the magic tools of the Three Immortals. Lao Tzu ordered the Yellow Scarf Lux to crush the sky, ordered the White Crane Boy to kill Qiong Xiao with three precious jade, and personally took out the magic box from his sleeve and put Bi Xiao into the box to turn it into blood.

Jiang Ziya Feng, Qiong Bi and Bi Xiao were the gods of "three women in the pit" when the gods were sealed, and they were in charge of mixed yuan fights, immortals and mortal saints, princes and emperors, nobles and virtuous fools. When they landed, they must first turn the fights into robberies and must not surpass them. Moreover, the Romance of the Gods also points out that Miss KengSan also has the sacred duty to reincarnate the baby who landed, saying that "the above three aunts are the gods of Miss KengSan." "Mixed barrel" is a clean barrel on the earth (it should refer to a barrel with descaling), and the birth of mortals has been reborn since then. "When the baby is born, the first thing to do is to wash the dirty things in the bucket. Although it is inevitable that the sages of the Emperor took it out of context and said that the three girls in the pit were Ce Shen, in fact, the three girls in the pit should be the god of delivery.

Legend has it that Zi Gu is a kind and poor girl in folklore. On the fifteenth day of the first month, Zi Gu died of poverty. People sympathize with her and miss her. In some places, it is convenient to have the custom of "welcoming the daughter-in-law on the fifteenth day of the first month". Every night, people tie a life-size portrait of purple aunt with straw and cloth heads. Women have stood beside the toilet, pigsty and kitchen where Zigu often works to meet her, holding her hand like sisters, telling her sweet words and comforting her with tears. This scene is very vivid and truly reflects the thoughts and feelings of the working people who are kind, honest and sympathetic to the weak.

Liu's Different Gardens in the Southern Dynasties said: "Zi Guyuan is the youngest wife of a family. Because he was jealous of his first wife and died in anger on the fifteenth day of the first month, people made the image of Zi Gu (the fifteenth day of the first month) to welcome her. I wish to inform you that Zi Xu (said to be Zi Gu's husband) is not at home, and Mrs. Cao (said to be the eldest wife Cao Shi) has gone back to her family. Zigu, you can come out. Meet in the toilet or the pigsty. If Zi Gu's image is heavier, it is Ce Shen. There is a man surnamed Meng in Pingchang County who once met his daughter-in-law on the 15th day of the first month, and her daughter-in-law walked by. Since then, I have put an old towel on the image of Zigu, probably for this reason!

"Cave View" said: "When Gao Xin's daughter died, she said,' I love music all my life, and I can be greeted with music in the first month. ""This is another legend about Yingzi Valley.

Zi Gushen's belief in God existed in the Six Dynasties and prevailed in the Tang and Song Dynasties until the Qing Dynasty. "Collection of ancient and modern books. "Nerve" volume four quotes "Different Garden": "There is an aunt in the world. In ancient times, she was said to be a concubine and was jealous of a big woman. She died on the fifteenth night of the first month. Later generations made sacrifices and said,' While Zi Xu is away, Cao Fu will go, and my sister-in-law can go out.' Whoever caught it thought God was coming. To illustrate many things. Xu, the name of the husband is also. Cao Fu, a big woman. "I quoted Yi Xian Lu again:" Zi Gu, from Laiyang, surnamed He Mingmei, the word Li Qing. Shouyang Li Jingna is a concubine. His wife was jealous and died in the toilet on the fifteenth day of the first month. God pitied him and named him Ce Shen. Therefore, the world creates its shape and worships the toilet at night to occupy everything. The common name of three aunts and six grandmothers. The Chronicle of Jingchu written by Liang Zonggu in the Southern Dynasties: "Welcome to Zigu on the evening of 15th, and predict the future sericulture, which will take up more business. "Shen Songkuo's Meng Qian Bi Tan Volume 21:" It is an old custom to meet Ce Shen on a moonlit night. It doesn't have to be in the first month. You can call anytime. "Huang Lun Shuo Shi Zhen Ji in Qing Dynasty": "Today, on the Shangyuan Festival, we are welcoming women. Methods: Take a dung dustpan the day before, decorate it with a hairpin ring, mark it with flowers, and insert a silver hairpin into the dustpan mouth for use by the toilet. Another confession is set up, candles are lit to burn incense, and children salute. " Mr. Liang Xingyang refers to the collection of ancient and modern books. Scripture "

Ce Shen has different titles, such as "please a toilet aunt" in Zouxian, Shandong, "please a toilet aunt" in Guangdong, "call a toilet aunt" in Hangzhou and "three girls in the pit" in Su Shao. Someone in Shaoxing welcomes guests in ash storage, so it is called "Cinderella", and someone in Suzhou welcomes guests at the door corner, so it is called "the door corner girl". Others took different names because they took different pictures. For example, in Jiangxi, melons and gourds, gourds in gourds, gourds in gourds, gourds in gourds, gourds in gourds, gourds in gourds, gourds in gourds, gourds in gourds, and gourds in gourds are directly called "Zigu" in Jianli, Fengxiang, Shaanxi and other places in Hubei. In a word, Ce Shen, the daughter-in-law, has different names because of the different ways and places to welcome her. The content and purpose of Yingzi Valley around the country are nothing more than two points. The first is divination and sericulture. After Liu Dong and others called "three wishes" in "A Brief Introduction to the Scenery of the Imperial Capital", "God jumps and jumps, and those who enjoy it rest (auspicious);" If you can't afford it, it's your fault. "In some areas of Fujian, another custom has been formed in the sense of divination. Hongbao's Notes on Fujian Miscellaneous Notes in Qing Dynasty says: "In Fujian customs, women are better at raising their children and goddesses. On July 7th, the upper house was called Aunt, and the lower house was called Yuan Ye Dong Shi Niang. "Many girls who didn't write their names in the yamen secretly took out the Spring Festival couplets posted in front of the door and burned them in front of the daughter-in-law, thinking that one day they could be a good son-in-law. The second is to do the "shooting hook" play. The specific practice is unknown. According to "Youyang Za" and "Meng Qian Bitan", please invite Zi Gu to play poetry, writing and chess.

According to ancient records, Su Shi's Zi Gu Ji Shen records that Yuanfeng came to Huangzhou in the first month of three years. From February to the county. The following year, scholar Pan Bing said to Yu Yue, "What a world of difference! The official was ordered at the beginning, and the yellow man was unknown. Guo is an overseas Chinese in Guangzhou. He is a descendant of God. He is eloquent and good at writing poems. He said, "Su Gong has come, but I can't see him." It's time, the male will be the sky, and the god will be the sky. "In the first month of next year, C said," God belongs to the Guo family. "You see, give you covered with vegetation, you will be in the hands of a woman, the second boy to help you. Draw a word with chopsticks and say, "I am from Shouyang." My surname is He, my name is Mei and my name is Li Qing. I have known that reading belongs to literature since I was a child, and I am a lonely woman. In the Tang Dynasty, Shouyang stabbed his concubine to death and brought a concubine as a servant, but his wife was jealous and was killed in the toilet. Although I dare not sue when I die, the angel saw it, complained about it and made it work for the world. There are many kinds of so-called goddesses in the world, but none is so outstanding as concubines. People seldom stay to write poems and dance to entertain them. "Dozens of poems, agile, have wonderful ideas, mixed with ridicule. When asked about the changes of gods, ghosts and buddhas, the answers are unexpected. Sitting on the palm of a guest's hand, he wrote "Liangzhou Carved with Knives", where the gods danced in the middle of the festival. At the end of the Song Dynasty, he bowed down and said, "Official writing is famous all over the world, so why don't you spare paper to make the world know about concubines?" "Look closely at He Zhisheng," Baoyu said. "He was robbed by cruel officials and killed by a shrew, and he was very resentful. Instead of mentioning the name of the secretariat, it is polite. It can be said that a guest knows his life in turn, but never talks about his privacy and guilt. Anyone who knows good words and is ashamed of not being known to the world can be a saint. Roughly record and answer its meaning.

Other ancient books recorded Jie Ce Shen in ancient China, also known as Zi Gu. However, folklore and related records are different. "Bai Ze Map" said: "The good name of the toilet is Yiyi." ① The Miscellaneous Five Elements Book says: "Ce Shen is the Empress." (2) Liu's "Different Gardens" in the Southern Song Dynasty also said the same thing, with five records of Tao Kan going to the toilet. When he met, the emperor indicated his future. (3) In the Tang Dynasty, Niu Sengru's Ghost Record said: "Ce Shen was named Deng Guo." (4) When the Six Dynasties were covered, Ce Shen did not agree. Since then, because of the popularity of Zigu's folk beliefs, Zigu has gradually been called Ce Shen.

The record of Zi Gu was also first seen in Liu's "Different Gardens" Volume V, saying: "There is a Zi Gu God in the world. According to ancient legend, Yun was the concubine of others and was jealous of the first wife. Every time I take filth, I die of gratitude on the fifteenth day of the first month. Therefore, the world creates its shape by its day and welcomes it in the toilet or pigsty at night. I thought to myself,' Zi Xu is not here, so is my husband's name. Cao is the eldest wife and my sister-in-law can fight.' Those who catch it feel heavy, that is, it comes from God. I feel dazzling and colorful when I put wine and fruit, but I just can't jump. Can occupy everything and predict the future sericulture.

Good at shooting hooks, good at dancing and bad at sleeping. "(5) After the different gardens, there are undoubtedly Ji, Liang Zonggu's Chronicle of Jingchu, Sui Du Taiqing's Collection of Jade Candles, etc. Dongyang, Southern Dynasties and Song Dynasties all have descriptions about Zi Gu. " "The Story of Qi Xie" said: "In the first half of the first month, ... in the evening of the first month, Zi Gu was ushered in divination. ⑥ Chronicle of Jingchu's Age says: "On the 15th day of the first month, Zigu will be welcomed in the evening to predict the future sericulture, and everything will happen. ⑦ "Jade Candle Collection" has a cloud: "Night welcomes children. "Today, in addition to the events of Zi Gu recorded in different gardens, they also recorded the events of the queen (the daughter of the emperor) recorded in Donglan Jing and Five Elements Miscellaneous Books, which seems to combine Zi Gu with Queen Ce Shen." The story of Jingchu Chunqiu is only a doubtful one. The cloud says, "What is the spirit of the emperor after the general?" Pet-name ruby "jade candle collection" is the proper language, saying, "The spirit of the emperor will be seen since ancient times. "It can be seen that from the early Southern Dynasties to the Sui Dynasty, in the process of spreading the custom of welcoming Zi Gu, Zi Gu and the empress emperor of Ce Shen gradually merged into one, and Zi Gu became a toilet god.

Regarding the Tang Dynasty, there is a description of Zi Gu's life experience. Volume 19 of "Continued Notes in Tea Fragrant Room" quotes a question and answer between Zigu and Su Dongpo, saying: "There is a cloud in Dongpo's collection about Xiangu's question and answer:' The servant asked Sangu (another name for Zigu-the cited note), that is, the immortal, and Sangu said: Man Qing disciple also. To make a biography, the third aunt said: I was born in Shouyang, my surname is He Mingmei, and my name is Li Qing. My father is Bi Min. She taught me: You were born different, and tomorrow will be more expensive than others. So I sent my concubine to study in Li Zhi. In a few months, I learned nine classics. When my father died, my mother married a concubine and an actor, less than ten days later. When the secretariat falsely accused a lover, he put him in prison and forced him to marry a concubine. When I was young, my wife looked askance, so she ordered me to seize the concubine and throw it into the toilet. Fortunately, I met an angel from heaven. When I heard this, I pretended to be a god and sent a ghost to settle things. Then I became a concubine on earth and took charge of the people's bureau. Y: When were people? Sanguyun: People in the Tang Dynasty. What's your name again? I dare not say. Then ask the secretariat for officer, three Gu Yun:

After entering the stage. I also asked the emperor, Gu Yun, about the weather at that time. Yu Yue, the author of "Continued Banknotes in the Tea Room", said: "According to this, the so-called KengSangu is also a world, and it is customary to welcome Zigugu in the first month, that is, its god is also. Chen's Tian Ji contains four quotations from Yi Zhi, saying, "Tangzigu is a god, and Laiyang is also a human being. His surname is He, his first name is Mei, and his word is blue (all his books are Li Qing). He has been studying since he was a child. In the third year of the Tang Dynasty (687), Li Jingnan, the secretariat of Shouyang, became a concubine, and his wife died in the toilet, on the fifteenth day of the first month. Then Lingyun appeared. "Zi Gu appeared in the Southern Dynasties and the Song Dynasty (according to the legend in Art Garden, this story may have appeared before), but after the Tang Dynasty, there was a husband who was a historian of the Tang Dynasty, with a native place and name. This undoubtedly benefited future generations. Not only that, it seems to arouse people's sympathy and gain more admiration by changing the "grateful death" in "Different Garden" to "being beaten to death by his wife in the toilet". In the Qing Dynasty, Yu's Gui Si Cun Manuscript also quoted the first paragraph of Lu, but added the conclusion that "God's will pity it, and life is for it". Taoist Collection Search and Three Religions Search, written in the Yuan Dynasty and slightly edited in the Ming Dynasty, regard the above records as Zi Gu's biography, and search adds Zi Gu's miraculous deeds on its basis. As a cloud, "his wife killed him and put his body in the toilet." I can't get rid of my soul. I go to the toilet. Every time I smell crying, I just appear faintly, with swords and cheers. Nature is a great spirit. "In the old society, people's belief in Zi Gu was very common, and there were activities to welcome Zi Gu in many places. However, the way to welcome people is different. " "Different Garden" and "Qi Xie Ji" both say: On the fifteenth night of the first month, make a figure and greet it by the toilet or pigsty. "God Record" said: "In the first month, looking at the night, there is a custom in Jiangzuo. Take a meter of reeds and clothes and put them in your mouth to draw a pink plate. "The Story of the Official" said: "Please draw on the grey table with a white basket." Liu Dong's "A Brief Introduction to the Scenery of the Imperial City" in the Ming Dynasty said: "The night before last, a woman in sokcho, with a paper face and a short skirt, was named Girl (that is, Zigu). Two girls tucked her in, offered sacrifices to horse manure, and played drums and sang horse manure songs. "The places where guests are invited vary from place to place, but most of them are in the toilet room, so they are all named after the toilet.

Local customs Sichuan welcomes Ce Shen.

Lantern Festival, also known as "Shangyuan Festival". In ancient times, it was called Shangyuan, and at night it was called Night, hence the name Yuanxiao. The most lively part of the Chinese New Year is the Lantern Festival, and "excitement" must be the highlight.

Liu Xiaochang, an expert in Sichuan folklore, said that in the past, Chengdu, the East Street at the entrance of Daci Temple, was full of excitement, such as playing with dragon lanterns and lions, jumping lights and walking on stilts. In fact, the most striking custom is not to hang lanterns in the street, but to hide the folk scenery at that time: the weaver invited the "cat god" to scare the mice; Passers-by solve riddles on lanterns and meet strangers; The mother took her daughter, prayed for good luck and offered sacrifices to her son.

Welcome Ce Shen.

The mother took her daughter to offer sacrifices to her son-in-law and prayed for good luck to marry a good family.

Zi Gu blessed her daughter to marry a good family.

Meng Chun Baicaoling, the ancient custom welcomes Purple Valley.

Take a bamboo basket and a skirt from the kitchen.

Vertical clamp support, insert pen to wish him a book.

In the old society of Chengdu, every Lantern Festival, people with daughters at home were taken by their mothers to offer sacrifices to their children.

Zi Gu's story comes from before the Southern and Northern Dynasties. It is said that the Li family has a concubine named Zigu, who is young and can do all kinds of housework. She is very kind, and all the girls around her like to talk with her. This caused Li Jiazheng's dissatisfaction. In order to get rid of this eyesore, Mrs. Zheng decided to attack Zigu on the fifteenth day of the first month. On the Lantern Festival, the poor son-in-law died in her toilet. The next day, when I heard the news of Zi Gu's death, my relatives and friends all burst into tears. The news of Zi Gu's death was widely circulated, and everyone silently prayed for her.

Because Zigu died in the toilet, she was called Ce Shen, and the worship was called "Welcome to Ce Shen". Put a broom on the day before the festival, decorate it with hairpin rings and flowers, and insert another silver hairpin in the broom mouth, just like dressing my daughter-in-law and putting it on the edge of the pit toilet to offer sacrifices. Emotional, crying with a dung basket, crying about Zigu's misfortune, and hoping to cry away his bad luck.

At the same time, another confession is set up, candles are lit, incense is lit, and children are asked to salute their aunts. Mother-in-law said, "When Zixu is away, cloud is his specialty." Mrs Cao has left, Yun is her wife, and her sister-in-law can go out. "It means that your husband and wife are gone, come out quickly.

After the ceremony, the mother will hold the girl's hand and earnestly advise and express her hope. "You can find a good family next year, and I don't know if the zhangs' can treat you well. I haven't met you. "

Related Books Ce Shen: History of Toilet Civilization

Ce Shen: The History of Toilet Civilization was published by Shanghai People's Publishing House, and translated by Julie Holland and Xu Shipeng. This is an interesting history of toilet culture, which shows the historical changes of toilets and the cultural differences of different nationalities in an interesting way with the theme of toilets. It tells the history of toilets and the customs and lifestyles related to them. The author even thinks that human civilization does not start with words, but with toilets, because only with toilets can human beings avoid running around to avoid their own excreta, thus transitioning from nomadic life to farming life. Of course, this is an interesting explanation. In addition, this book also introduces that early Europeans directly threw chamber pot out of the window; London Bridge was originally a public toilet, and the sewage directly fell into the Thames below; Louis XIV had a hobby of sitting on the toilet to receive guests, a history of toilet paper, and euphemisms related to toilets ... interesting anecdotes abound. The writing is humorous and relaxed, which makes people laugh. This paper studies the strange sanitary customs around the world, the secrets of toilets in the East and other areas, and the anecdotes of toilets in the battlefield. It is the kind of toilet reading that is interesting and can be interrupted at any time. Between reading and reading, readers have a leisurely knowledge.

Julie Holland, a doctoral student in comparative education at the University of Virginia, once traveled around the world as a flight attendant for eight years, looking for "perfect" toilets, investigating different toilet cultures and showing readers this harmonious and interesting history of toilet development.