What are the similarities and differences between the civil service election system in Song Dynasty and that in Tang Dynasty? thank you

There were many ways to select civil servants in ancient China, such as hereditary system, universal system, military service system, recommendation system, lang election system, grace election system and imperial examination system. owner

imperial examination system

After the Sui Dynasty unified the whole country, in order to strengthen centralization, Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the Nine-grade Zhengzhong system in 587 and established the Scholar Department. In the Sui Dynasty, Yang Di established the Imperial Examination Department, selected scholars through "examination first", and established an imperial examination system characterized by public examination and selection of outstanding talents. The imperial examination system was founded in the Sui Dynasty and formed in the Tang Dynasty. The development of Song Dynasty was complete, strengthened in Ming Dynasty and declined in Qing Dynasty. It lasted 1300 years, and it was the main official appointment system in the middle and late feudal society of China. Its main features are: ① The examination is open and there is fair competition. In addition to those who advocate industry and commerce, regardless of family background and wealth, as long as they have certain cultural knowledge, they can apply openly in prefectures and counties. It broke through the gate rule since Wei and Jin Dynasties, and opened up a road for small and medium-sized landlords to become officials. ② The examination system is becoming more and more complete. The imperial examination is divided into imperial examinations, and according to the nature of the subject, there can be nothing or martial arts. There are two kinds of literary works: systematic branch and conventional branch. The system was a temporary subject established by the emperor to recruit celebrities. Regular courses are a system that regularly accepts students from different disciplines. There are many general subjects, such as Scholar, Ming Jing, Jinshi, Faming, Shu Ming, Boy Scout, etc. The examination methods and contents of each subject are different. The source of candidates is becoming more and more formal, and students belonging to schools in Beijing or counties are called "students"; Those who pass the local examination are called "township tribute". Examination procedures, there were state examinations and provincial examinations in the Tang Dynasty, and palace examination was added in the Song Dynasty. After the Ming Dynasty, there were college entrance examination, township examination, general examination and palace examination. The palace exam is held every three years, and the emperor personally decides the ranking and decides one, one, two and three places, which are called first place, second place and flower exploration. ③ Take cultural knowledge as the main admission criteria. The subjects and contents of the imperial examination are different, but they are poetry, classics, strategy, mathematics, law and so on. They all focus on cultural knowledge. The imperial examination system has certain positive significance in the early stage. After the strengthening of absolute monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties, great changes have taken place in the imperial examination system from the examination content to the form. Mainly manifested in: ① The examination content is not practical. The examination questions must be based on Zhu's "Four Books and Five Classics" and "speak for sages". Confucianism has become a compulsory course for entering the official position. (2) Stereotyped writing is rigid in form and empty in content, which fetters people's thoughts. ③ The examination questions are fragmented, biased, difficult, strange and abstruse, and the examination room is falsified. Please ask for supervision, official corruption is getting worse. The imperial examination system gradually became an obstacle to social development and was finally abolished in the late Qing Dynasty (see the imperial examination system).

Although the imperial examination system was the main way to select officials after Sui and Tang Dynasties, hereditary system, recommendation system and other official selection systems, such as military service, official promotion, official donation and official seal, still exist as supplementary forms of the imperial examination system.

Those bad people will commit their own crimes (Biography of Historical Records and Fan Sui). After the Han Dynasty, there were many restrictions on the appointment of officials, and the court had certain requirements on the candidates' family background, occupation, property, qualifications, nationality, physique and appearance. For example, since the Qin and Han dynasties, the policy of emphasizing agriculture and restraining business has been implemented, and businessmen have been restricted to be officials in different degrees in previous dynasties. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the Han nationality was restricted from being senior officials, and there were also certain ethnic restrictions on the appointment of officials in the Sixteen Countries, the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty. In a hierarchical bureaucratic team, background and qualifications are the first factors to consider when serving as an official. The more perfect the bureaucracy, the stricter the restrictions on birth and qualifications.

In order to avoid favoritism in officialdom, there has been a rule of avoiding officials since the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Eastern Han Dynasty practiced the "Three Mutual Laws". Its basic spirit is that local people are not allowed to be local officials, and marriage rooms are not allowed to supervise each other. It was also stipulated in the Han Dynasty that brothers, sons and nephews and people who were related by marriage were not allowed to be officials in a department or region. If they are elected as officials of a department or region, one of them should announce his withdrawal. In the Tang Dynasty, officials were not allowed to work in their native places, nor were they allowed to work in neighboring counties where their native places were located. The Tang Dynasty also stipulated that all official positions with responsibilities or supervision and inspection should be avoided among relatives. For example, the son of a prime minister cannot be an admonisher, and his brother cannot serve in the same province. In the Qing Dynasty, the regulations on avoiding officials were stricter. For example, it was clearly stipulated that you could not be an official within 500 miles of your native Fiona Fang; The heads of departments in charge of provincial affairs of the central ministries shall not use the people of this province; Children of Beijing officials with three or more titles, governors and governors among local officials. , can't be a censor in Beijing.

In some dynasties, there were some special regulations on the appointment of officials. For example, in the Tang Dynasty, the criteria for being an official increased the conditions of body, speech, calligraphy and judgment, requiring the official to be handsome in appearance, generous in rhetoric and reasoning, neat and beautiful in calligraphy, and excellent in arts and sciences.

After the appointment of officials, the court will issue them with certificates of status. Since the Warring States period, there have been ribbons made of gold, silver and copper, as well as ribbons of different colors such as purple, cyan, black and yellow, indicating the status level of officials.

Appointed officials have a one-year probation period since the Han Dynasty, and those who are incompetent are either transferred, moved to the left or dismissed. Before the official conferment in Ming Dynasty, there was an internship stage of "learning things" and "inspecting politics".

Central official system in Tang and Song Dynasties

During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, autocratic centralization became more and more complete, and a system of three provinces and six departments with the emperor as the center was established. "In the third year of the Tang Dynasty, the provinces merged, and the master of the Chinese book gave an order, and the door owner blocked it, and the master of the Chinese book followed it." The governors of the three provinces have the post of prime minister, forming a mechanism of clear division of labor and mutual restraint among the three provinces. This is an important change in the administrative system. Shangshu province is the center of the central administration, which consists of six departments and twenty-four departments. Shangshu adopts the joint office system. Dutang lives in the center of the province and is the center of government activities. The governor of Shangshu Province, the left and right servants, and the left and right Cheng all work here, and there are left and right divisions, which are divided into six departments. The six departments evolved from six Cao Cao departments, headed by the official department, which is in charge of administrative affairs such as selecting and awarding officials, honors and examinations, and has four departments under its jurisdiction: the official department, the secretary-general, the secretary-general and the clerk. The Ministry of Housing is responsible for population, land, currency and taxation, and has four divisions: the Ministry of Housing, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Warehouse. The ritual department is in charge of etiquette, sacrifice and tribute, and consists of four divisions: ritual department, ancestral department, catering department and host and guest; The Ministry of War is in charge of selecting soldiers, maps, chariots, war horses and armor, and has four divisions: the Ministry of War, the staff side, the driving department and the treasurer department. The criminal department is in charge of laws and regulations, criminal law, exile and the policy of restoring bans, and has four divisions: the criminal department, the official department, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Ministry of Industry is in charge of Shanze, wasteland reclamation, construction and craftsmen, and has four divisions: Ministry of Industry, wasteland reclamation, security department and water department. Compared with the nine ministers in Qin and Han Dynasties, the six ministers formed in Sui and Tang Dynasties were a great progress in terms of name, authority and organizational system. In addition to the six departments, there are nine halls and five prisons, which evolved from the Qin and Han Dynasties. Since Wei and Jin Dynasties, Cao Liu has replaced some of Jiuqing's functions and powers. Jiuqing's name has been preserved, but his duties have changed greatly. The Northern and Southern Dynasties changed its name to Dian, and the chief official and adjutant were called Qing He respectively. Among the nine halls, the Taichang Hall is only responsible for sacrifice and etiquette, and the imperial examination belongs to the ritual department; Guanglu Temple, originally guarded by the imperial palace (evolved from doctors), specializes in wine, gifts and meals; Weiwei Temple specializes in weapons and etiquette tents, not guards; Taibu Temple is in charge of the administration of generals and horses, regardless of the emperor's chariots and horses; Ting Wei was renamed Dali Temple, in charge of interrogation and supervision, and the judicial administration was returned to the Ministry of Punishment; Crack temple sponsored etiquette, and foreign dynasties hired etiquette department; Sinong Temple manages warehousing, and the tax revenue belongs to the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development; The responsibilities of Zongzheng Temple have not changed; Taifu Temple is a newly-built temple in charge of the collection of gold and silver wires. The five supervisors are imperial academy, Shaofu, General, Military and Water Supervisors, who are in charge of school education, handicraft manufacturing of the state and the court, the construction of palaces, city corridors and government offices. Nine halls and five prisons are formally independent, but in fact they are offices that cooperate with six departments.

Before and after Zongshen Yuanfeng, the central institutions in the Song Dynasty were very different. There were three provinces and six departments before Yuanfeng, but they existed in name only. Taking "discussing peace under the same book" as the real prime minister, taking politics as the deputy minister and always taking administration; In addition, the Privy Council was established to take charge of the military, and the three departments, namely, the Transportation Department, the Iron and Salt Department and the Expenditure Department, were in charge of the finance, resulting in the separation of administrative, military and financial powers, and the power of the Prime Minister was greatly weakened. The powers of the six ministries have also been eroded by the increasing number of institutions. Such as the official department, the ownership of the examiner's East Hospital, the Imperial Palace, the examiner's West Hospital and the third-class hospital; Ministry of housing, belonging to the third division; Does belong to the courtyard of etiquette; Ministry of war, the power belongs to the Privy Council; The criminal department affiliated to the trial court picketed the criminal supervision department in Beijing; Ministry of industry, the third division of the right to build a case. There is a similar situation in the power transfer of some temples and prisons in the nine halls and five prisons. In five years (1082), Zongshen Yuanfeng carried out the reform of the central official system, abolished the three departments and all miscellaneous departments, and basically returned to the pattern of three provinces and six departments in the Tang Dynasty. Different from the Tang Dynasty, Shang Shu shot the left servant and assistant minister under the door as assistant ministers, while Shang Shu shot the right servant and assistant minister in the middle book as assistant ministers in the middle book, which was the position of prime minister (later renamed as left and right prime ministers). In addition, the position of Privy Council was retained. The central administrative system of the Yuan Dynasty changed the three provinces of Tang and Song Dynasties into one province-Zhongshu Province, which is the highest administrative organ and consists of six departments.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the autocratic centralization of feudal monarchies in China developed to the extreme. Zhu Yuanzhang made a major adjustment to the central official system in the early Ming Dynasty. First of all, the prime minister system since Qin and Han Dynasties was abolished as a cabinet system for consulting and handling daily affairs. In terms of supervision, Yushitai was changed to Duchayuan since the Han Dynasty; Militarily, the commander-in-chief was changed to the commander-in-chief of the fifth army Improve the status of the six departments, report directly to the emperor, and establish a huge eunuch institution and factory health secret service organization under its control. Among them, the abolition of the prime minister and the formation of the cabinet are the main contents of the government system adjustment. The Cabinet is composed of bachelor of imperial academy, which is divided into first assistant, second assistant and group assistant. Its main duty is to "draft the ticket", that is, to draft the imperial edict on behalf of others and reply to the memorial. After Yongle, the bachelor of cabinet gradually participated in politics, not only as a consultant, but also as a real power. Subsequently, the cabinet was changed from the emperor's advisory secretary in the early Ming Dynasty to the national administrative center.

The Qing dynasty, established by Manchu nobles, was initially discussed through the meeting of the Eight Banners and the King. During the Yongzheng period, the northwest used soldiers frequently. In order to discuss military affairs in time, a quartermaster room was set up, which was later renamed as "Handling Military Affairs Department" or simply Military Affairs Department. At first, it was a temporary organization. Later, it not only replaced the King's Council, but also expanded its power. It became the central auxiliary political department that handled the national military and political affairs under the direct control of the emperor. Its characteristics are: high efficiency, high speed and confidentiality. The functions and powers of the six ministries in Qing dynasty were reduced, and they were no longer administrative centers, so they could not directly issue government decrees. In the Qing Dynasty, only Dali Temple, Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, Taibu Temple and Split Temple were left as temple supervisors. The ancestral hall is above the six departments. Only imperial academy was left in the five prisons, and the other four prisons were merged into the Ministry of Industry. After the Opium War, in order to adapt to the invasion of foreign powers and maintain the feudal regime, the Qing court carried out official system reform and institutional adjustment (see "Political System Reform in the Late Qing Dynasty").

8. China's ancient military system

In order to seize and consolidate political power, the ancient ruling class in China formed a set of systems in the activities of organizing, managing, using, developing and reserving military forces.

The military system in ancient China was called "military system" and "military system". It comes into being with the emergence of the country and the army, adapts to the economic and political system of the whole country, embodies the will of the ruling class and serves the interests of the ruling class. China's military system experienced two stages of development: slave society and feudal society. With the change of political system, from simple to complex, from low to high. The main contents include: military system, establishment, management education, training, military attaché s, military service personnel, military dispatch and wartime command, food weapons and horses administrative support system. Its basic function is to ensure military construction, so as to effectively prepare and carry out wars and ensure the stability and development of sovereignty.

Shangshu Shi Gan recorded the military system of slave society. 2 1 century BC, the first slave country in China came into being. As an important part of state power, the army also came into being, and established the organization and reward and punishment system of the wartime army. Wang Xia is in charge of the country's military and political power. The chief executive is a "man of six things" and was a general of the whole army in wartime. According to Oracle Bone Inscriptions's records, the Shang Dynasty took the king as the supreme military commander, and the nobles and the leaders of the country were senior military generals. The Shang army established the organization of "division", established the military service and mobilization system of "boarding the people" and "boarding the people" and the training system of shooting, defending and hunting. The army is divided into chariots and apprentices, mainly composed of chariots and soldiers. The main equipment is a chariot drawn by animals. Compared with Xia and Shang Dynasties, the military system of the Western Zhou Dynasty has developed greatly, and the central standing army has been expanded, with 22 divisions: the Sixth Western Division, the Eighth Chengdu Division and the Eighth Yin Division. Rites and music were conquered by the Emperor of Heaven. Although vassal states and some noble ministers have a small number of troops, they must obey the unified command of Zhou Wang.

The characteristics of the military system in slave society are as follows: ① Adapted to the political system centered on kingship, the king is the supreme military commander and often goes to war in person. Although the army of Fang governors had certain independence, it had to listen to the king's orders in wartime; (2) The standing army evolved from the Royal Guard, expanded continuously, and played an important role in the campaign. In wartime, the army mainly relied on temporary conscription; (3) the blood race military service system of slave owners and nobles and the civilian military system of military, political, military and civilian integration; (4) Military and political officials implement the "clear record" system, which is compatible with the patriarchal clan system.

The military system in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was a period of great change in the disintegration of slavery and the formation of feudalism. The rulers and monarchs who represent the interests of the emerging landlord class have reformed the military system in order to adapt to the smooth realization of political and economic changes. For example, the State of Qi "issued military orders for internal affairs", the State of Zheng "contributed to the mound", the State of Lu "contributed to the mound", and the State of Jin "contributed to the farmland" and "served as a state soldier". Especially in the Warring States period, Qin Xiaogong appointed Shang Yang to carry out political reform, establish a rank system, improve household registration, organize ranks, and collect military taxes from farmers. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, a large number of military monographs represented by Sun Tzu's Art of War also appeared. In the fierce competition of reform, hegemony and unification of the world by force, reformers rise and conformists sink. At the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Period, there were only a dozen countries left at the beginning of the Warring States Period, which were finally unified by the State of Qin. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, many major changes took place in the military system: ① The actual reforms in some vassal states made the national strength and military strength rise, and the Zhou royal family declined and lost control of the vassal states. "Rites and music were conquered by governors" and "conquered by doctors". (2) The conscription system in counties and counties was established, in which farmers were mainly recruited, and the military tax was also borne by farmers, which expanded the source of soldiers and military tax. (3) The combination of military and political establishment is conducive to war mobilization. With the expansion of the army, the organizational system has developed from "division" to "army" (4) The scale and region of the war have expanded, from plain to mountainous areas and rivers and water networks. In addition to chariots, there are infantry, cavalry and sailors, and step warfare has replaced car warfare as the main form of combat. ⑤ Civilian personnel and military personnel are obviously separated, and a system of sending troops according to military symbols and rewarding military achievements has emerged. ⑥ The national system of military and political integration has been transformed into a highly centralized military system centered on the monarch, which is relatively independent of the administrative system.

The military system of feudal society The feudal society in China experienced three divisions and three unification from the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period to the Qin and Han Dynasties, from the Three Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and from the Five Dynasties, the Ten Kingdoms, the Liao and Xia Dynasties to the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Correspondingly, the feudal military system also experienced the initial stage, the development stage and the later stage.

The appointment and management system of officials in ancient China. The selection of civil servants mainly solves the source of officials, and the management of official positions includes the appointment, performance appraisal, rewards and punishments, rank, salary, vacation and retirement of officials.

Civil servant election system

There were many ways to select civil servants in ancient China, such as hereditary system, universal system, military service system, recommendation system, lang election system, grace election system and imperial examination system. There are mainly three stages and three systems, namely, the hereditary system in pre-Qin, the recommendation system from Qin and Han Dynasties to Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the imperial examination system from Sui and Tang Dynasties to Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Genetic line

Also known as Shiqing Shilu system, it prevailed in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. At the end of primitive society, after the demise system of "the world is public" was destroyed, the hereditary system of "adults take it as a gift" appeared. Hereditary system is characterized by the unity of kingship and clan power. It determines the appointment of government officials at all levels through family blood relationship, and determines the rank and rank of officials according to blood relationship. Anyone who sets up titles and official positions has enjoyed fiefs and fiefs from generation to generation.

Recommendation system

It is an official selection system for recommending talents and awarding official positions. The recommended standard is mainly moral integrity, rather than relying entirely on family background, which breaks through the barrier of hereditary system of aristocratic descent in pre-Qin dynasty. The appearance of the system of investigation and recruitment in the Western Han Dynasty marked the maturity of the recommendation system, while the implementation of the "Nine-grade Zheng Zhi System" in the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties marked its decline.

Chaju is an official selection system in which senior central or local officials recommend Jinshi or junior officials to the central government through inspection according to the subjects stipulated in the imperial edict. It is also the essence of recommendation system. Chaju is divided into imperial edict and annual edict. The imperial edict is the imperial edict for selecting special talents. Every year, the promotion is to appoint local governors regularly to recommend talents to the court. Tea for the main subjects are virtuous founder, filial piety, doctoral students in imperial academy, special topics. Sometimes the emperor uses "countermeasures" and "shooting strategies" to assess virtuous and upright people. Expropriation is a system for emperors and county chiefs to select and appoint subordinates. The characteristics of the emperor and the recruitment of talents are "levy", and the chief appointed aides and aides as "monarchs". In the election of officials at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the trend of drilling gangs, cronyism and fraud prevailed, and the inspection system gradually deteriorated.

During the Cao Wei period, Wang Pi accepted the suggestion of Chen Qun, a senior official in the official department, and implemented the "Nine-grade Official Law", that is, the "Nine-grade Zheng Zhi System". In prefectures and counties, there are officials, large and small, who are responsible for judging local scholars from top to bottom according to their family background and moral integrity, and collecting public opinion for the court to award officials according to their grades. The "nine-grade system" is the development of the procuratorial system, which brings the power of selecting officials from the local to the central government. It is an innovation in talent classification, and the criteria for selecting talents tend to be thorough. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the rule of the gate valve was strengthened. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, this system had many disadvantages, such as Chiang Kai-shek's emphasis and random evaluation. The gate of the clan controlled Chiang Kai-shek and controlled the election. In the later period, it caused "the noble gate valve won the glory of the world, and the Han family had no way to enter." Do is making the gate valve of the ruling tool.

imperial examination system

After the Sui Dynasty unified the whole country, in order to strengthen centralization, Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the Nine-grade Zhengzhong system in 587 and established the Scholar Department. In the Sui Dynasty, Yang Di established the Imperial Examination Department, selected scholars through "examination first", and established an imperial examination system characterized by public examination and selection of outstanding talents. The imperial examination system was founded in the Sui Dynasty and formed in the Tang Dynasty. The development of Song Dynasty was complete, strengthened in Ming Dynasty and declined in Qing Dynasty. It lasted 1300 years, and it was the main official appointment system in the middle and late feudal society of China. Its main features are: ① The examination is open and there is fair competition. In addition to those who advocate industry and commerce, regardless of family background and wealth, as long as they have certain cultural knowledge, they can apply openly in prefectures and counties. It broke through the gate rule since Wei and Jin Dynasties, and opened up a road for small and medium-sized landlords to become officials. ② The examination system is becoming more and more complete. The imperial examination is divided into imperial examinations, and according to the nature of the subject, there can be nothing or martial arts. There are two kinds of literary works: systematic branch and conventional branch. The system was a temporary subject established by the emperor to recruit celebrities. Regular courses are a system that regularly accepts students from different disciplines. There are many general subjects, such as Scholar, Ming Jing, Jinshi, Faming, Shu Ming, Boy Scout, etc. The examination methods and contents of each subject are different. The source of candidates is becoming more and more formal, and students belonging to schools in Beijing or counties are called "students"; Those who pass the local examination are called "township tribute". Examination procedures, there were state examinations and provincial examinations in the Tang Dynasty, and palace examination was added in the Song Dynasty. After the Ming Dynasty, there were college entrance examination, township examination, general examination and palace examination. The palace exam is held every three years, and the emperor personally decides the ranking and decides one, one, two and three places, which are called first place, second place and flower exploration. ③ Take cultural knowledge as the main admission criteria. The subjects and contents of the imperial examination are different, but they are poetry, classics, strategy, mathematics, law and so on. They all focus on cultural knowledge. The imperial examination system has certain positive significance in the early stage. After the strengthening of absolute monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties, great changes have taken place in the imperial examination system from the examination content to the form. Mainly manifested in: ① The examination content is not practical. The examination questions must be based on Zhu's "Four Books and Five Classics" and "speak for sages". Confucianism has become a compulsory course for entering the official position. (2) Stereotyped writing is rigid in form and empty in content, which fetters people's thoughts. ③ The examination questions are fragmented, biased, difficult, strange and abstruse, and the examination room is falsified. Please ask for supervision, official corruption is getting worse. The imperial examination system gradually became an obstacle to social development and was finally abolished in the late Qing Dynasty (see the imperial examination system).

Although the imperial examination system was the main way to select officials after Sui and Tang Dynasties, hereditary system, recommendation system and other official selection systems, such as military service, official promotion, official donation and official seal, still exist as supplementary forms of the imperial examination system.

Official management system

Including the appointment of officials, performance appraisal, rewards and punishments, rank salary, vacation and retirement, etc.

appointment

In order to ensure the political level of officials at all levels, all previous dynasties attached importance to the appointment of officials after selection. In order to ensure the quality of recommending officials, the Qin Dynasty stipulated that "those who are incompetent deserve what they deserve" (Biography of Historical Records and Fan Sui). After the Han Dynasty, there were many restrictions on the appointment of officials, and the court had certain requirements on the candidates' family background, occupation, property, qualifications, nationality, physique and appearance. For example, since the Qin and Han dynasties, the policy of emphasizing agriculture and restraining business has been implemented, and businessmen have been restricted to be officials in different degrees in previous dynasties. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the Han nationality was restricted from being senior officials, and there were certain ethnic restrictions on the appointment of officials in the Sixteen Countries, the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty and the Qing Dynasty. In a hierarchical bureaucratic team, background and qualifications are the first factors to consider when serving as an official. The more perfect the bureaucracy, the stricter the restrictions on birth and qualifications.

In order to avoid favoritism in officialdom, there has been a rule of avoiding officials since the Eastern Han Dynasty. The Eastern Han Dynasty practiced the "Three Mutual Laws". Its basic spirit is that local people are not allowed to be local officials, and marriage rooms are not allowed to supervise each other. It was also stipulated in the Han Dynasty that brothers, sons and nephews and people who were related by marriage were not allowed to be officials in a department or region. If they are elected as officials of a department or region, one of them should announce his withdrawal. In the Tang Dynasty, officials were not allowed to work in their native places, nor were they allowed to work in neighboring counties where their native places were located. The Tang Dynasty also stipulated that all official positions with responsibilities or supervision and inspection should be avoided among relatives. For example, the son of a prime minister cannot be an admonisher, and his brother cannot serve in the same province. In the Qing Dynasty, the regulations on avoiding officials were stricter. For example, it was clearly stipulated that you could not be an official within 500 miles of your native Fiona Fang; The heads of departments in charge of provincial affairs of the central ministries shall not use the people of this province; Children of Beijing officials with three or more titles, governors and governors among local officials. , can't be a censor in Beijing.

In some dynasties, there were some special regulations on the appointment of officials. For example, in the Tang Dynasty, the criteria for being an official increased the conditions of body, speech, calligraphy and judgment, requiring the official to be handsome in appearance, generous in rhetoric and reasoning, neat and beautiful in calligraphy, and excellent in arts and sciences.

After the appointment of officials, the court will issue them with certificates of status. Since the Warring States period, there have been ribbons made of gold, silver and copper, as well as ribbons of different colors such as purple, cyan, black and yellow, indicating the status level of officials.

Appointed officials have a one-year probation period since the Han Dynasty, and those who are incompetent are either transferred, moved to the left or dismissed. Before the official conferment in Ming Dynasty, there was an internship stage of "learning things" and "inspecting politics".

7. Ancient central official system in China.

China's slave society, feudal society, central government and its official system.

Central official system in slave society

There were six ministers who assisted Xia Wang in the Xia Dynasty. Sikong is the head of the Six Immortals, Hou Ji is in charge of agriculture, Stuart is the bishop, Dali is the chief prison, and * * * industrial management is the best in construction, and he is in charge of animal husbandry in Shanze in a crisis. In addition, the Xia Dynasty initially established institutions responsible for military affairs, agriculture and taxation. The Shang dynasty established a central organization centered on the king. The assistant minister is Yin. Here are Si Tuleideng in charge of forced labor, Sikong in charge of engineering and Scott in charge of prison. In Shang Dynasty, "the great event of the country was to worship Rong", and the theocracy played an important role in political life, so the religious affairs officer in charge of sacrifice, divination and chronicle was the most prominent at that time. The central organization of the Western Zhou Dynasty has made great progress. There are three kinds of people who assist the king of Zhou: Taishi, Taifu and Taibao. There are "three doctors" under the three fairs: Chang Bo, also known as Mu, is in charge of local civil affairs; The appointment of officials is permanent, also called appointee; The person in charge of government affairs is a prospective husband. Administrative officers are divided into two systems: Qingshiliang and Taishiliao. In the Qing Dynasty, Liao had three officials, Situ, Sima and Li, who were in charge of farming, conscription and construction respectively. Taishiliao is the administrative department in charge of calendar, sacrifice, divination and cultural education. Compared with Shang Dynasty, the status of religious affairs officers in Western Zhou Dynasty declined.

The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period is a period of social change. With the advancement of feudalism, important changes have taken place in the government institutions of various vassal States. During the Spring and Autumn Period, the main consuls who assisted the monarch and handled government affairs appeared one after another in various countries. Qin is called Shangqing, Yaqing and Dashuchang, Chu is called Lingyin, and Qi, Jin, Lu and Zheng are called Xiang. Although countries have different names, their status and positions are equivalent to the later "phase". The central institutions are improving day by day. Qi, Lu, Zheng, Chu and other countries have inherited the official system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, and Si Tuleideng, Sima and Sikou are still the chief executives of the government. Other important officials are: Sidian in charge of land tax, Sidian in charge of finance, Sidian in charge of mountain ze and hunting, etc. With the increase of contacts between vassal States, countries set up pedestrians to take the lead in diplomacy. The historian Tai Shigong has an important position, and his duty is to "remember the major events and write the alliance first". At the beginning of the Warring States, with the progress of political reform movements in various countries, the establishment of feudal autocratic centralized regime became an important feature of the central official system at this time. The prime minister and the prime minister of "the head of a hundred officials" have become the official positions generally set up in various countries. Due to historical and traditional reasons, the official system of various countries is still not unified. Great changes have taken place in the state of Qi, and the following five senses have been set: Datian, Daxing, Dajian, Dali and Fu. Chu is a department of its own, with Ling Yin as the highest official of the central government and Shang Zhuguo, Fu and General as senior government officers. Along the Sanjin, Qin took the advantages of other eastern countries and formed a unique official system, which was inherited by the Han Dynasty and became the basic framework of the central official system in the early feudal society.

The central official system in feudal society In 22/KLOC-0 BC, Qin Shihuang unified China and established an autocratic feudal empire. From then on to the Opium War of 1840, in the feudal society of more than 2,000 years, the development and evolution of the central official system roughly went through three stages.

Before and after Zongshen Yuanfeng, the central institutions in the Song Dynasty were very different. There were three provinces and six departments before Yuanfeng, but they existed in name only. Taking "discussing peace under the same book" as the real prime minister, taking politics as the deputy minister and always taking administration; In addition, the Privy Council was established to take charge of the military, and the three departments, namely, the Transportation Department, the Iron and Salt Department and the Expenditure Department, were in charge of the finance, resulting in the separation of administrative, military and financial powers, and the power of the Prime Minister was greatly weakened. The powers of the six ministries have also been eroded by the increasing number of institutions. Such as the official department, the ownership of the examiner's East Hospital, the Imperial Palace, the examiner's West Hospital and the third-class hospital; Ministry of housing, belonging to the third division; Does belong to the courtyard of etiquette; Ministry of war, the power belongs to the Privy Council; The criminal department affiliated to the trial court picketed the criminal supervision department in Beijing; Ministry of industry, the third division of the right to build a case. There is a similar situation in the power transfer of some temples and prisons in the nine halls and five prisons. In five years (1082), Zongshen Yuanfeng carried out the reform of the central official system, abolished the three departments and all miscellaneous departments, and basically returned to the pattern of three provinces and six departments in the Tang Dynasty. Different from the Tang Dynasty, Shang Shu shot the left servant and assistant minister under the door as assistant ministers, while Shang Shu shot the right servant and assistant minister in the middle book as assistant ministers in the middle book, which was the position of prime minister (later renamed as left and right prime ministers). In addition, the position of Privy Council was retained. The central administrative system of the Yuan Dynasty changed the three provinces of Tang and Song Dynasties into one province-Zhongshu Province, which is the highest administrative organ and consists of six departments.