What are the amazing experimental designs in psychophysics experiments?

Otto wallach is the winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and his success is legendary. When wallach was in middle school, his parents chose a literary path for him. Unexpectedly, after a semester, the teacher wrote him this comment: "wallach is very diligent. But it is too rigid to create literary materials. " After that, his parents asked him to paint oil paintings instead, but wallach was neither good at composition nor polishing, ranking first in his class. Faced with such a clumsy student, most teachers think that he has no hope of success. Only the chemistry teacher thinks that he is meticulous in doing things and has the quality to do chemical experiments well, and advises him to learn chemistry. In this case, the spark of wallach's wisdom was suddenly ignited and finally succeeded. Wallach's success illustrates the truth that students' intellectual development is unbalanced, and they all have their own strengths and weaknesses. Once they find the best place to play their wisdom, they can achieve amazing results. Later generations called this phenomenon "wallach effect".

2. Threshold effect

The so-called threshold effect means that a person will gradually accept higher-level requirements after accepting lower-level requirements and being correctly guided. This effect was put forward by American social psychologists Friedman and Freese in 1966 "Field experiment without pressure submission: door-to-door technology".

3.*** Effect

There is a phenomenon in nature: when a plant grows alone, it looks short and monotonous, but when it grows with many similar plants, it is deeply rooted and full of vitality. People call this phenomenon of mutual influence and promotion in the plant kingdom "* * * effect". In fact, there is also a "biological effect" in our human group. From 190 1 to 1982, there have been 25 Nobel Prize winners in the British "Kadiwen Laboratory", which is a prominent example of the "* * * effect".

4. Stereotype effect

Social psychology believes that the influence of looking at people with old eyes is called "stereotype effect", which is a fixed and general view of people, thus producing a stereotype. This phenomenon can often be seen in schools. Teachers often show affection for those students who are talented and have excellent academic performance, and they are valued and favored. However, students with poor academic performance are often discriminated against, teachers show impatience and boredom, and depressed words are often on their lips. Practice has proved that students who often receive this kind of "treatment" will suddenly feel cold water poured on them, lose confidence in learning, lose courage to overcome difficulties, and even have decadent emotions.

5. First cause effect

The first cause effect, sometimes called the function of first impression, refers to the influence of the first impression left by the perceived object on social perception. Specifically, it is the first contact with people or things, which psychologically produces a stereotype with emotional factors for someone or something, thus affecting the evaluation of that person or thing in the future. Therefore, we can see that this influence is not conducive to the analysis of collecting correct information in decision-making. The first impression is that good or bad is one-sided, which is not conducive to comprehensive understanding and analysis.

The effect of first impression is called the first cause effect. Judging a person by his first impression is often biased. If we only rely on the first impression in the recruitment examination and employee performance appraisal, we will be blinded by some superficial phenomena.

There are two main aspects in the recruitment process: one is to judge people by their appearances. Handsome and personable candidates can easily win the favor of examiners, followed by judging people by their words. People who are eloquent and quick to answer often leave a good impression. Therefore, when selecting talents, we should not only listen to their words and look at their appearance, but also observe their actions and test their achievements.

6. recency effect

Recency effect refers to someone or something whose recent performance has an advantage in his mind, thus changing his consistent view of the person or thing. Recency effect and the first cause effect are two corresponding effects. The first cause effect usually has an impact in unfamiliar situations, while recency effect usually has an impact in familiar situations. Both of them are subjective assumptions about people or things, which makes the decision-making information distorted.

7. Halo effect (Halo effect)

Halo effect means that someone or something leaves a deep impression on people because of its outstanding characteristics, while ignoring other psychological and behavioral qualities. Sometimes there will be a "positive aura" and sometimes a "negative aura", which will interfere with the evaluation of information. To overcome the halo effect, we must adhere to objectivity and not mix subjective elements.

8. Butterfly effect

1960, Lorenz, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, encountered a difficult problem when studying the problem of "long-term weather forecast": she used a simplified set of data to simulate the evolution of the weather on the computer, originally trying to improve the accuracy of the weather forecast by using the high-speed operation of the computer. However, contrary to expectations, many calculations show that small differences in initial conditions will lead to wrong conclusions. The same is true of psychological emotions. A group of cartoons shows that a person was scolded by the leader at work, and he was very angry. He went home and lost his temper with his wife. His wife was scolded for no reason, and she was very angry and slammed the door. Walking in the street, a pet dog stopped the way and barked, making his wife even more angry. She kicked, and the puppy was kicked and ran past an old man, which scared him. It happened that the old man had a heart attack and was frightened by the puppy that suddenly rushed out. He had a heart attack on the spot and died.

Lorenz discovered the great contrast caused by small differences. She used an image metaphor to express this discovery. A small butterfly flapped its wings over Brazil, and the small vortex it incited merged with other air currents, which may cause a storm in Texas in the United States a month later-this is the famous "butterfly effect" in chaos.

In human resource management, if the personnel manager flexibly uses the psychological effect of personnel, he can fully mobilize the enthusiasm of subordinates or talents, make people give full play to their talents and achieve optimal work efficiency.

9. Rosenthal effect

Rosenthal, an American psychologist, visited a school and randomly selected three students from each class *** 18, wrote them on a form and handed them to the principal. He said seriously, "These 18 students have passed scientific tests and have high IQ." Six months later, Roche came to the school again and found that these 18 students really performed exceptionally well.

Rosenthal effect is a phenomenon in expectation psychology. When applied to personnel management, leaders are required to put their feelings, hopes and special incentives on their subordinates, so that subordinates can give full play to their initiative and creativity. When a leader assigns tasks, he might as well say to his subordinates, "I believe you can do it well" and "I want to hear the news of your success as soon as possible." In this way, subordinates will develop in the direction you expect, and talents will be produced in expectation.

10. Bell effect

Bell, a British scholar, is extremely talented. Some people say that if he studies crystals and biochemistry after graduation, he will win many Nobel Prizes. But he willingly took another road, put forward groundbreaking topics one by one, and guided others to the peak of science. This move is called the Bell Effect.

Bell effect requires leaders to have the spirit of Bole and ladder, to put units and collectives first, to have an eye, to let go of their talents, to dare to promote and appoint people who are better than themselves, and to actively create opportunities for talented subordinates.

1 1. Catfish effect

Once upon a time, after the Norwegians caught sardines at sea, if they arrived in Hong Kong alive, the price would be several times higher than that of dead fish, but only one fishing boat could bring live fish back to Hong Kong. Later, it was found that there was just one more catfish in the fish tank of this ship. It turns out that when a catfish is put into a fish tank, it will swim around because it is unfamiliar with the environment, and sardines will swim faster because they are nervous when they find this "alien". In this way, sardines prolong their life. This is the "catfish effect".

It is in line with the operation mechanism of talent management to play a competitive role in the group through the catfish effect and individual's "midway intervention". At present, the open recruitment and competition for posts implemented by some government agencies and units are good examples. This method can make people feel a sense of crisis and work better.

12. Tidal effect

Sea water surges up due to celestial gravity, with high tide when gravity is high and low tide when gravity is low. This is the tidal effect. The same is true of the relationship between talents and social times. Society needs talents, times call for talents, and talents emerge as the times require. For a unit, it is necessary to adjust the treatment of talents and realize the rational allocation of talents, thus increasing the attraction of the unit to talents. Now many well-known enterprises have put forward such human resource management concepts: attracting people with treatment, rallying people with feelings and inspiring people with career.

13. Business card effect

A young job seeker was rejected by several companies and felt very depressed. Finally, he went to a company to apply for a job with a glimmer of hope. Before that, he inquired about the history of the company boss. Through understanding, he found that the boss of the company had similar experience with himself before, so he was a treasure. When applying for a job, he talked to his boss about his job manager and his indignation at his talent. Sure enough, this sentence won the appreciation and sympathy of the boss, and he was finally hired as the business manager. This is the so-called business card effect. In other words, when two people communicate, if they first show the same attitude and values as the other person, they will make the other person feel that you have more similarities with him, thus quickly narrowing the psychological distance with you and being more willing to get close to you and form good interpersonal relationships. Here, the attitude and opinions expressed to each other consciously and purposefully are like a business card to introduce you to each other.

Proper use of "psychological business cards" can promote the establishment of interpersonal relationships as soon as possible, but to make "psychological business cards" play its due role, we must first be good at capturing each other's information, grasping the true attitude, looking for their positive and acceptable views, and "making" an effective "psychological business card". Secondly, find opportunities to "show" your "psychological business card" to the other party appropriately, so that you can achieve your goal. Mastering the applied art of "psychological business cards" is of great practical value to interpersonal communication and memory handling of interpersonal relationships.

14. Heterosexual effect

Ms. Li is the public relations manager of a company. She has a wide network of contacts, and will definitely win the initiative and make a great contribution to the company. The company was in short supply of raw materials. ministry of materials and equipment's comrades ran around, but they ran into a wall again and again, while Ms. Li went out to contact, and the problem was solved soon. The company's capital turnover is seriously out of balance, and it is in urgent need of loans, making the general manager like an ant on hot bricks. It is also Ms. Li, who is travel-stained and travels between banks, and actually borrows millions of yuan. Therefore, Ms. Li is highly valued by the leaders, and her salary and bonus have increased. Someone tried to sum up the secret of Ms. Li's success, and found that besides being clear-headed, quick-witted, rich in knowledge and experience, and flexible in dealing with people, it also had a lot to do with her dignified appearance and refined appearance.

In daily life, we can often see male salespeople receiving female customers, which are generally more enthusiastic than male customers. The main reason for Ms. Li's success is that today's society is still a male-dominated society, and most of them have to deal with men when going out to work, so women come forward more smoothly. This is called psychology? Quot heterosexuality effect ". This phenomenon is based on the attraction of opposites. People are generally more interested in heterosexuality, especially heterosexuality with attractive appearance and decent behavior, and women are no exception, but not as obvious as men. Sometimes in order to attract the attention of the opposite sex, men especially like to show themselves in front of women, which is also the "opposite sex effect" at work. However, the "heterosexual effect" cannot be abused. Women are beautiful and likable. If there is proper communication, it is normal to do things in front of the opposite sex. On the other hand, in order to achieve a certain goal, it is immoral to seduce others with hue. Men are more enthusiastic about the opposite sex, especially the young and beautiful opposite sex. It is understandable to be polite, but people feel that they regard the opposite sex as a stimulus and a dream? Quot Sexy "is beyond the limit, therefore, we should grasp the" degree "in contact with the opposite sex.

15. Decentralization of responsibilities

1March, 964 13 At 3: 20 pm, in front of an apartment on the outskirts of new york, a young woman named Juno Bibi was assassinated on her way home from work in a bar. When she cried out in despair, "Someone is going to kill someone! Help! Help! " Residents nearby heard the shouts, turned on the lights and opened the window, and the murderer escaped. Everything calmed down and the murderer came back to commit the crime. When she shouted again, the nearby residents turned on the lights again and the murderer ran away again. When she thought she had nothing to do and went back to her home to go upstairs, the murderer appeared in front of her again and killed her on the stairs. In the process, although she shouted for help; At least 38 of her neighbors went to the window to watch, but no one came to save her, and no one even called the police. This incident caused a sensation in new york society, and also attracted the attention and thinking of social psychologists. People call this phenomenon the responsibility of many bystanders spreading from bankruptcy.

Psychologists have conducted a lot of experiments and investigations on the causes of the spread of responsibility, and the results show that this phenomenon can be said to be not only people's apathy, but also the increasingly decadent morality. Because on different occasions, people's aid behavior is really different. When a person encounters an emergency, if he is the only one who can help, he will clearly realize his responsibility and give help to the victims. If he feels guilty from destruction, it will cost him a high psychological price. If there are many people present, the responsibility of helping those who ask for help will be shared by everyone, resulting in scattered responsibilities. Everyone shares little responsibility, and bystanders may not even realize their own responsibility, thus creating a psychology of "I don't save, others save" and causing a situation of "collective indifference". How to break this situation is an important topic that psychologists are studying.

16. Jason effect

There is an athlete named Zhan Sen. He is well-trained and strong at ordinary times, but he often loses in sports. People take this opportunity to call the phenomenon that people usually perform well, but fail in the arena due to lack of proper psychological quality the Jensen effect.

In daily life, the only explanation between "some are among the best, with strong strength" and "mistakes on the field" can only be psychological quality, which is mainly caused by excessive gains and losses and lack of self-confidence. Some people are usually "outstanding", outstanding, and the stars are holding the moon, resulting in a psychological set: they can only succeed but not fail. Coupled with the particularity of the stadium and the high hopes of society, country and family, it aggravated their psychology of being swayed by considerations of gain and loss, and their psychological burden was too heavy. With such a strong psychological gain and loss, how can they play their due level? On the other hand, lack of self-confidence leads to stage fright, which restricts the exertion of personal potential.

How to get out of the strange circle of "Jensen effect" First of all, we must recognize the purpose of the "stadium" and overcome the fear. The stadium is not terrible, but more formal than usual. Secondly, we should calmly walk out of the narrow shadow of being swayed by considerations of gain and loss, not be greedy for merit, and only strive to play our own level normally. The stadium is a high-level contest, and it is often a contest of psychological quality. As long as you build up your self-confidence, you will gain something from your efforts. Finally, I will hand over a satisfactory answer sheet.

17. Psychology of "sour grapes" and "sweet lemons"

"Sour grapes" mentality refers to what we try to do but can't get, and it is said to be "sour" and not good. This method can relieve some of our stress. For example: others have a good thing, I don't have it, I really want it, but in fact I can't get it. At this time, we might as well use the "sour grapes" mentality to try to find something bad in our hearts and say "bad words" about it to overcome our unreasonable needs.

The psychology of "sweet lemon" means that your own lemon is sweet, and "sweet lemon" means that everything you have and can't get rid of is good, so learn to accept yourself. Everyone has his own advantages, and everyone has his own characteristics. Don't say that you are not good, so you are not as good as people. Try "sweet lemon", learn to accept yourself and gradually enhance your self-confidence.

18. "south wind effect"

French writer La Fontaine once wrote a fable about the strength of the north wind and the south wind to see who can take off the coat of pedestrians. The north wind came first with a cold wind, biting cold. Therefore, in order to resist the attack of the north wind, pedestrians wrapped their coats tightly. The south wind blows slowly, and the sun shines suddenly. Pedestrians feel very warm, so they start unbuttoning and then take off their coats. It was obvious that Nanfeng won. This is the origin of the social psychological concept of "South Wind Effect". The enlightenment of "south wind effect" is that we should pay special attention to methods when dealing with interpersonal relationships. Both the north wind and the south wind make pedestrians take off their coats, but the results are quite different because of different methods. For example, some students are very fierce and strong when they are with everyone. Once or twice, you may have the upper hand because you are fierce and want to make others stronger, but you will soon find that you have lost your friends. We can also see that when we have conflicts with others, we will not give in to each other. In the end, it often hurts both sides. Think about it. If we learn from Nanfeng, will the result be much better?

19. Barnum effect in psychology

My friend once asked me, what is the most difficult thing in the world? I said it was the hardest to make money, and he shook his head. Goldbach conjecture? He shook his head again. I say I give up, you tell me. He said mysteriously that he knew himself. Indeed, those thoughtful philosophers also say so.

Who am I, where am I from and where am I going? People began to ask themselves these questions from ancient Greece, but they didn't get satisfactory results.

However, even so, people never stop pursuing themselves.

Because of this, people often lose themselves and are easily hinted by the information around them, and take other people's words and deeds as a reference for their actions. Conformity psychology is a typical proof.

In fact, people are influenced and hinted by others all the time in their lives. For example, on the bus, you will find a phenomenon that a person yawns with his mouth wide open, and several people around him can't help yawning. Some people don't yawn because there is no suggestion. Who are easily influenced? This can be checked by a simple test.

Let people reach out their hands horizontally, palms up and close their eyes. Tell him that now he has a hydrogen balloon tied to his left hand, which has been floating upwards; He tied a big stone to his right hand and fell down. Three minutes later, look at the gap between his hands. The greater the distance, the stronger the hint.

Knowing oneself, psychologically called self-perception, is a process in which individuals know themselves. In this process, people are more likely to be hinted by external information, which leads to the deviation of self-perception.

In daily life, it is impossible for people to reflect on themselves all the time, and it is impossible to observe themselves as outsiders all the time. Because of this, individuals use external information to know themselves. Individuals are easily hinted by external information when they know themselves, so they often can't perceive themselves correctly.

Psychological research reveals that it is easy for people to believe that a general and general personality description is particularly suitable for them. Even though this description is empty, he still thinks it reflects his personality. There was once a psychologist who used a common sentence that was suitable for almost anyone to let college students judge whether it was suitable for them. Results Most college students think that this sentence describes themselves in detail and accurately. The following paragraph is the material of psychologists. Do you think it suits you too?

You really need others to like and respect you. You tend to criticize yourself. You have many abilities that can be your strengths, but you also have some shortcomings, but you can usually overcome them. You have some difficulties in communicating with the opposite sex. Although you look calm on the outside, you are really anxious on the inside. You sometimes doubt whether the decision you made or the thing you did was correct. You like some changes in your life and hate being limited. You are proud of being able to think independently, and you won't accept other people's suggestions without sufficient evidence. You think it unwise to expose yourself too much in front of others. Sometimes you are outgoing, kind and sociable, and sometimes you are introverted, cautious and silent. Some of your ambitions are often unrealistic.

This is actually a hat suitable for anyone's head.

A man named Shoman? Barnum's famous technician with a mixed brand commented on his performance, saying that he was very popular because there were ingredients that everyone liked in the program, so he made the remark that "people cheated every minute". People often think that a generalization and general description of personality reveals their own characteristics very accurately, which is called "Barnum effect" in psychology.

A psychologist completed the Minneapolis Multiphasic Personality Questionnaire (MMPI) for a group of people, and presented two results for participants to judge which one was their own. In fact, one is the result of the participants themselves and the other is the average result of most people's answers. Participants actually thought that the latter expressed their personality characteristics more accurately.

Barnum effect is very common in life. Take fortune telling as an example. After consulting fortune tellers, many people think that what fortune tellers say is "very accurate". In fact, those who turn to fortune tellers are easily influenced. When people are depressed, they lose control of their lives, so their sense of security is also affected. An insecure person's psychological dependence is also greatly enhanced, and the suggestibility is stronger than usual. In addition, fortune tellers are good at trying to figure out people's inner feelings and can understand the feelings of help seekers a little, and help seekers will immediately feel a kind of spiritual comfort. The fortune teller's next general and harmless words can convince the helper.

20. Fruit extraction effect

In some TV programs, people do so-called strange memory performances. Generally, a blackboard is set up on the stage, and then the audience can say some words, numbers, program names, formulas, foreign language words, etc. at will and write them on the blackboard in order. In this process, the performer does not look at the blackboard, but can accurately say any content according to the requirements of the audience, and even recite it backwards.

This kind of performance looks amazing, but in fact it just uses the memory of Peggotty and produces the "Peggotty effect". Actually, this method is not difficult. Is to create a set of memory codes, such as (1)- hat, (2)- glasses, (3)- scarf, (4)- clothes, (5)- belt, (6)- pants, and skillfully write them down, and then associate them with the materials to be memorized through association. For example, you are required to remember the following words: (1) elephant, (2) pump up, (3) take a bath, (4) electric fan, (5) bicycle, (6) water ... so that you can associate the elephant with the number one hat with a fixed code, and associate it with wearing a hat on your nose. When you think of the sixth word "water", associate it with your pants-water makes your pants wet.

Through such coding association, it is not difficult to remember. Because when we associate, we will consciously enlarge what we associate, and the appearance is clear and unfamiliar. For example, remember the fourth word-when the electric fan is associated with clothes, it is common if the appearance is that the electric fan blows away the clothes, but it is strange if you imagine that the electric fan is wearing a down jacket, which makes it easier to remember this object.

Pego's mnemonic method has many fixed codes, such as numbering by the upper and lower parts of the body, coding by what you see after entering the door, numbering by the names of relatives and friends, and so on.

When we master this method in the process of learning, we can avoid boring and monotonous memories and become interesting. Of course, this method will not be mastered overnight. It requires us to exercise regularly to make our association as unique and eye-catching as possible.

2 1. migration effect

In learning psychology, the influence of prior learning on subsequent learning is called "transfer effect". It has three functions:

The effect of learning A ahead of time to promote learning B later is called positive effect. The effect that the first learning A interferes with and hinders the subsequent learning B is called negative effect. Learning A first has no effect on learning B later, which is called zero effect.

In daily life and study, if we don't pay attention to the conditions related to the migration conditions, unnecessary migration will occur. For example, Japanese drivers often have difficulty driving in the United States, and even have car accidents. This is mainly because in Japan, "cars are left and people are right", while in the United States, the opposite is true. Of course, if we make good use of the migration effect, we may have the following effects. For example, selecting and distributing golf training players among baseball players; Let English speakers suddenly learn French, German and Spanish, which will generally achieve ideal results.

The enlightenment of this theory to learning is:

First, we should pay attention to the similarities and differences between concepts and principles.

The second is to pay attention to the summary of learning methods, that is, to master those regular methods and means to solve problems in the learning process.

Third, we should extensively accumulate learning experience in all aspects.

Fourth, in the process of learning, especially in the process of solving problems, we should pay attention to preventing stereotypes.

22. Feedback effect

Feedback was originally a concept in physics, which refers to sending part of the energy from the amplifier output circuit back to the input circuit to enhance or weaken the effect of the input signal. Psychology borrows this concept to explain learners' understanding of their own learning results, which strengthens the understanding of the results and promotes learners to study harder, thus improving learning efficiency. This psychological phenomenon is called "feedback effect".

The following is a famous psychological experiment of feedback effect:

Psychologists Rosie and Henry divide the students in a class into three groups and test them after studying every day. The examiner tells the students the learning results of the first group every day, the second group only says it once a week, and the third group doesn't. This was done for eight weeks. Later, I changed my practice. The first group was switched with the third group, while the second group remained unchanged and taught for 8 weeks. Results Except for the steady progress of the second group, the situation of the first group and the third group changed greatly: that is, the academic performance of the first group gradually declined, while that of the third group suddenly increased. It can be seen that it is very important to know your own learning achievements in time to promote learning. And instant feedback is more effective than remote feedback.

Psychologist Brown's experiment shows that different feedback methods have different promoting effects on learning. Generally speaking, students' active feedback is better than teachers' feedback. The enlightenment to us is:

First, in the process of learning, we must give self-feedback in time to avoid aimless learning and learning methods that don't know our own learning results.

Second, pay attention to the teacher's comments on homework or test papers, sum up the advantages and disadvantages of your own study carefully, so as to clarify your own direction of efforts.

The third is to treat your academic performance correctly, don't be proud of getting high marks, and still insist on continuing to work hard; Don't lose heart when your grades are not satisfactory, but make up your mind to catch up.

23. Matthew effect

The term "Matthew effect" was put forward by American scientist robert merton. In this way, he summed up a social phenomenon-more and more honors are awarded to the contributions made by scientists with considerable reputation, while those scientists who have not yet become famous refuse to admit their achievements.

24. The barrel effect

The capacity of a barrel is determined by the shortest board, so in a team or group, the inferior is extremely harmful. This is what people often call the "barrel effect".