Can anyone provide information about the ancient tomb? I am writing a novel. In urgent need.

Tombs are commonly known as mountain graves, and ancient tombs are tombs before the Qing Dynasty. Ancient burial customs vary from time to time, including burial, cremation and water burial. Burials are common.

Most tombs in Ming and Qing dynasties have monuments, which are easy to identify. In the Qing Dynasty, there were many tombs above Jiupin officials, and official positions were engraved on general tombstones. Once found, it should be reported in time. Tombs before Ming and Qing Dynasties are difficult to distinguish on the surface of the cemetery, so we must pay special attention to the development of bulldozing. Dusty sand tombs in Ming and Qing dynasties; Before the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were many earthen pit tombs and brick chamber tombs. Most of the funerary objects are wooden coffins, as well as urn coffins, pottery coffins, sarcophagus and sarcophagus. For various reasons, some people dig up the remains of the deceased after burial, put them in coffins or clay pots, and move them to other places for burial, commonly known as relocation (relocation) burial, also known as secondary burial.

Most of its burial utensils are clay pots, commonly known as bone altars. There are many funerary objects in the grave. Before the Ming and Qing Dynasties, most of them were buried with household utensils and production tools, and some of them were specially used as funerary objects, such as pottery houses, pottery stoves, pottery pieces and pottery pigs unearthed from Han tombs. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, thin burial prevailed, with few funerary objects, mainly jade, gold and silver ornaments.

source and course

Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor

There are both connections and differences between tombs and burials in ancient tombs in China. "Tomb" refers to the fixed facilities for placing dead bodies, and "burial" refers to the way of placing dead bodies. In archaeology, the two are often collectively referred to as "tombs". In tombs, there are often various funerary objects. Since ancient times, people have attached great importance to funerals because of the influence of traditional concepts such as "ancestor worship" and "death is like life". Therefore, tomb materials not only provide burial customs and burial system itself, but also reflect social politics, economy, production, life, customs, religion, ideas and so on to some extent. Therefore, the burial customs and burial system displayed in tombs are often regarded as the epitome of society at that time, and the study of tombs is of great significance.

"Tomb", as a fixed facility for placing corpses, occurs with the progress of human culture and changes with the development of the times. At first, the disposal of the body was very simple. The Book of Changes under the Cohesion says: "In ancient times, people were buried in fields with thick clothes, and there were countless mourning periods without seals or trees." That is, the body is wrapped in thatch, abandoned in the wilderness, and the grave is not dug. Later, people may not be able to bear to see the bodies of their loved ones being eaten by animals, so they began to bury them, so there appeared graves for placing bodies.

In the Paleolithic Age, because humans often lived in natural caves, they also used natural caves or stone sheds as cemeteries to place corpses. For example, the caveman's grave and his residence are in the same cave. After entering the Neolithic Age, due to the improvement of productivity and living standards, people began to consciously build various forms of tombs, tombs and burial customs became more popular and diverse, and obviously had the characteristics of institutionalization.

More than 3,000 tombs of matriarchal clan communes excavated in China show that the burial customs in prehistoric times showed different characteristics in terms of tomb shape, burial style and burial tools due to different times, regions and cultures. Nevertheless, in prehistoric times, cultural identity was generally based on the clan system, so there were often some * * * identification principles in the tomb system that conformed to the clan system. In the Neolithic Age, people dug holes to bury bodies, which became the most common way of burial in the Yellow River Basin. Clan cemeteries appear, including single burial, multiple burial and second burial.

With the development of society, there have also been separate burial systems for adults and infants and graded burial systems. By the end of primitive society, pit tombs had developed from the Yellow River valley to the Yangtze River valley, southeast coast and northeast China, and men and women were buried together. The fact that men stand upright on their backs and women bend sideways shows that the patriarchal social structure is more regular, and the difference in status level is more obvious through the size of tombs, the availability or quality of burial utensils and the quality of funerary objects.

For example, in the Longshan period, with the further development of social economy and technology, while the principle of clan cemetery was widespread, the phenomenon of different levels of burial became more prominent because of the grade difference of settlements, and even different specifications of aristocratic cemeteries appeared, of which Liangzhu culture was the most obvious. Both Fanshan and Yaoshan sites are Liangzhu aristocratic cemeteries, but the specifications of Fanshan cemetery are obviously higher than Yaoshan cemetery. In addition, there are many specifications of Liangzhu aristocratic cemetery that are lower than Yaoshan. There are also different levels of tombs in Taosi cemetery in the Central Plains, and the tomb specifications can be divided into three categories, seven or eight levels.

Underground part of structural evolution

In the early days of primitive society, the form of tombs was very simple. Only one pit was dug underground. The pit was generally very small, and it could only accommodate corpses. There were no coffins and no special packages for the corpses. By the late Neolithic Age and the late Dawenkou culture, a few graves had a large area, and the walls along the pits were built with natural wood, and the upper part was covered with natural wood. With the development of social history, great changes have taken place in the tomb structure. There are mainly the following three types: the first type of wooden underground palace: after entering the class society, the tomb system has strict classes and grades, and the tombs of the ruling class are very large. An Asian-shaped Shang Dynasty tomb in Houjiazhuang, Anyang, Henan Province, covers an area of about 330 square meters, with a total area of 1800 square meters. The tombs of kings and nobles at all levels are made of wood. Guo is the "palace" for holding coffins, that is, coffins outside coffins. Make neatly cut large wooden squares or thick plates into a flat box with tenons and mortises, a chassis below and a big cover above. The coffin is divided into several compartments, with the coffin in the middle. There are several compartments on both sides and up and down, called compartments, for placing funerary objects, such as coffins. The female corpse in the coffin is intact, including lacquerware, silk, cotton embroidery, musical instruments, bamboo slips, wooden figurines, agricultural and livestock products, Chinese herbal medicines, prints, etc. 1000.

"Yellow Intestine Mystery" is the development of Guo Mu Gong Xuan, and its scale and complexity are the peak of Di Gong in Guo Mu. Yellow sausage refers to cedar yellow core, that is, cedar core as tenon; "Ming" refers to the architectural form of the parliamentary hall, the predecessor of the tenon structure, and the square-wood cross building. After tenon, it has no practical architectural significance and becomes a symbol of etiquette, that is, "Ming" and "He" are architectural forms. By the Han Dynasty, the tenon had been separated from the rafters and piled up around the rafters, which became a "crossword puzzle". If you look from the inside, all the walls can only see the end of the rafters. According to documents, this burial system appeared at the latest in the Warring States Period. At present, the earliest known Huangchang crossword puzzle has been unearthed at Tomb Qin Jinggong 1 in Qin Yongcheng, Yu Fengxiang. In addition, Huang Shang crossword puzzles were discovered in the early, middle and late Western Han Dynasty. Among them, the Han Tomb 1 in Dabaotai, Beijing in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty is a grand puzzle made up of15,000 cypress rafters, which is 3 meters high and reaches the top of the tomb. There are cloisters and front and rear rooms in it, which is a mature form of yellow sausage puzzle.

The second kind of masonry underground palace: Since the Han Dynasty, masonry tombs have been widely used, and wooden coffins have been gradually replaced. This is an epoch-making change in China's ancient tomb system. This change mainly started in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, and then spread to all parts of the country. In the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, hollow brick tombs were popular in the Central Plains. Stone tombs began to appear at the end of the Western Han Dynasty, and portraits were carved in the tombs, so they were called "relief stone tombs". The structure and layout of the tomb are also imitations of real-life houses. From the Han Dynasty to the Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, tombs and underground palaces built with bricks and stones have been developing continuously.

The third kind of earth cave underground palace: In the loess-rich areas in the north, the earth cave underground palace is dug by using the characteristics of thick soil layer, strong viscosity, uniform texture and less precipitation, and there are exquisite carvings and murals on the walls. For example, the tombs buried with Xi 'an Gan Mausoleum, the tombs of Princess Qin Yong, Prince Zhang Huai and Prince Yide, and the Jingling Underground Palace in Tang Xizong.

funeral objects

In the early primitive society, the funerary objects in the tomb were mainly the objects that the deceased liked and used before his death, including pottery, stone tools and decorations. In the same cemetery, the number and thickness of funerary objects in each tomb are often not much different.

grave

In the later period of primitive society, there was a phenomenon of polarization between the rich and the poor. For example, in TombNo. 10 In the late Wenkou culture, there were funerary objects with complicated structures. The deceased wore exquisite jade ornaments, shovels, ivory utensils and nearly 100 exquisite pottery.

After entering the class society, the polarization between the rich and the poor is even more disparity. The funerary objects in the tombs of kings and nobles are extremely rich and exquisite, including bronzes, jade, lacquered wood, bone horns, land and so on. The system of human sacrifice was also very popular in Shang Dynasty. Human martyrdom means burying dead clan leaders, parents, slave owners or feudal lords with living people. There are dozens of martyrs in the tombs of Wang Shang and big noble, ranging from 100 to 200 people, including the attendants of the tomb owners, maids and concubines, guards and various handymen. Human martyrdom was still common in the early Western Zhou Dynasty, but decreased slightly after the middle period. Since the Warring States period, the custom of burying wooden figurines and pottery figurines has prevailed and can be regarded as a substitute for human sacrifice.

Since the mid-Western Han Dynasty, various pottery funerary objects have been added, including models of warehouses, stoves, wells, mills and pavilions, as well as models of pigs, dogs and chickens. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, there were more kinds and quantities of funerary wares. This is a great change in the funerary objects of ancient tombs in China. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the funerary objects were mainly ceramics, utensils, pottery sculptures, clay figurines and tomb-robbing animals. During the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties, a large number of pottery figurines were the main funerary objects. Pottery figurines can be divided into two categories: guards when traveling and servants and waiters at home. From Song Dynasty to Ming Dynasty, funerary objects were mainly practical objects and treasures, including ceramics, gold and silver wares and jade articles.

Ground part

grave

From the late Yin Dynasty to the early Zhou Dynasty, burial tombs began to appear on tombs. After the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the tomb became bigger and bigger, shaped like a hill. In particular, the sealing of the emperor's mausoleum is a big project with obvious development and changes. The following are several forms of imperial tombs:

The first "square". Its practice is to tamp the soil layer above the tomb to make it a square cone with a small top and a large bottom, because its upper part is a small square flat top, as if the top of the square cone had been cut off. Therefore, this day is "beside". The mausoleum of Qin Shihuang Mausoleum in Lintong, Shaanxi Province looks like an earthen mountain with a typical square shape. The tombs of the emperors' tombs in the Han Dynasty also took the form of squares.

The second is "taking mountains as the mausoleum". That is to say, the tombs of emperors in the Tang Dynasty were all in the form of mountains as tombs. In the Tang Dynasty, Zhaoling took Jiuyi Mountain as the mausoleum and built it by chiseling the mountain.

The third kind of "Bao Cheng Bao Ding". That is, build a tall brick city above the underground palace, and add soil in the brick city to make it a dome above the city wall. This kind of city wall is called "Baocheng", and the circular tomb above it is called "Baoding". There is also a square tower protruding forward in front of Baocheng. There is a square tower on the tower, which is called "Fangcheng Tower", and there is a posthumous title monument of the emperor or queen in the building. Emperors and Empresses in Ming and Qing Dynasties all adopted this tomb type, which consists of Fangcheng, Baocheng and Baoding.

Assumed age

The boundary between life and death of silk unearthed from Dulan tombs is controversial in modern medicine, especially in ancient times. The ancients generally believed that human death was only the separation of soul and body, so the deceased should be buried in a thick way and a lot of things should be put in the tomb. The funerary objects in the tomb have also become specimens for future generations to understand the dead and all aspects of that era.

grave

Cultural relics unearthed from Dulan tombs include fabrics, wood products, gold and silver ornaments, pottery, leather products, saddles and so on. They not only outlined the life of Tubo nobles, but also provided clues for exploring the social situation at that time. However, it is most important to determine the age of the ancient tomb before the research has problems.

The unearthed fabrics are all exquisite colors and patterns, including brocade, twill, silk, yarn and so on. Colors are pink, deep purple, light yellow, dark green and dark blue. A piece of red ink painted filament in Tomb No.3 is eye-catching, which is not only beautiful, but also the basis for dating. The texture of this fabric itself has complex dark flowers, and it is vaguely seen that there are deer with wings in the double-circle beading pattern. This pattern has strong Central Asian cultural characteristics, and its era may be in the early Tang Dynasty or earlier, but the ink pattern on the dark flowers is broad-leaved flowers with broken branches. In the evolution history of ancient decorative patterns in China, broadleaf flowers became popular after the middle of the 8th century. For example, the gold-plated parrot-patterned Liang Yin jar at the hejia village site in the southern suburbs of Xi 'an in the mid-8th century is decorated with boughs, which is a thick and luxuriant broad-leaved flower, very close to the ink painting pattern on this fabric, and its age should be roughly the same. The cloth may have been made earlier, but the ink painting flowers on it were painted later. Of course, the time when the tomb owner used this fabric and the age of the tomb will not be earlier than the middle of the eighth century.

Everything will leave its mark at that time. Science teaches people to be rigorous and be careful when verifying, but it is by no means to let people give up their galloping thoughts; Bold ideas are not academic indulgence, but are put forward after mastering a lot of information and inheriting previous academic accumulation. The object of archaeological research is visible objects, which are easy to inspire people. Sometimes imagination is more important than knowledge.

Although these fabric fragments can't tell the original purpose, it can be roughly concluded that Tubo people can't make such colorful fabrics, which should come from the outside world. Tubo nobles make clothes and utensils with these foreign high-grade fabrics to show their nobility, which should be fashionable new products. The age of these fabrics provides clues for the dating of graves.

artistic style

First, the graves are different in size. Noble tombs range from tens of square meters to 100 square meters, while civilian tombs are generally only 1-2 square meters.

Tomb mural

Second, coffins are of different grades. Coffins used to bury noble bodies are also covered with wooden coffins. The coffin is carved with exquisite patterns, painted with multiple layers of paint, and even attached with linen and silk to decorate and protect the coffin. There are coffins in the graves of civilians, even coffins, and only the bodies are buried in the graves.

Third, there are people buried in the tombs of nobles, ranging from one or two people to dozens or even hundreds. And the graves of civilians will never be buried with others.

Fourthly, the funerary objects in aristocratic tombs are numerous and luxurious, including not only jade and pottery, but also bronzes such as Jue and Ding, while the funerary objects of civilians are only pottery or some tools for daily work, such as shovels and mussels, and bronze funerary objects are rare. As for the funeral of slaves, the Shang Dynasty still followed the old system and was buried in the middle of the field with a rich salary. They worked hard for others all their lives and were abandoned in the ravine after their death. Their bodies were torn by wild animals and their bones were beaten by wind and rain. It should be noted that due to the influence of Yin people's habit of worshipping ghosts, the development of history, the improvement of productivity and the huge wealth, during the Shang Dynasty, social and cultural psychology advocated thick burial, which not only made the funerary objects more and more abundant, but also became more and more exquisite and luxurious, with more and more types. From ordinary labor tools to simple decorations, from daily necessities to expensive ritual instruments, everything is available.

In terms of the time limit for burial, there were also clear provisions in the Spring and Autumn Period: "The emperor was buried on the seventh day, in July; The vassals were buried on the 5th and in May. Doctor, doctor and Shu Ren were buried in March for three days. " . This is an example for future generations to follow.

In the Qin Dynasty, Qin worked hard to destroy the six countries and unify the whole country. The unprecedented strength of the Qin State made the imperial tombs of the Qin Dynasty appear overwhelming and engulfing mountains and rivers. Magnificent layout, tall city walls, gorgeous sleeping halls, solid tombs and rich funerals have become models of later emperors' tombs.

] cemetery choose a cemetery

graveyard

In the past, people with status attached great importance to the choice of cemeteries, believing that cemeteries with good feng shui could make future generations flourish. At present, cemeteries are generally built on barren hills and wasteland and do not occupy valuable land resources. However, after planning and construction, planting trees and planting green trees, it is also a beautiful scenery and flowers, which has become a good place for the old people to rest in peace. Although the cemetery has developed rapidly in all aspects, for various reasons, bereaved families should master the following points when choosing a cemetery:

(1) According to relevant regulations, operating cemeteries must have a cemetery business license. This certificate confirms the legal status of the cemetery. At the same time, the purchase of tombs must use the unified tomb certificate and tomb purchase contract of the municipal department. Some cemeteries are operated without the permission of the management department, and once a dispute occurs, it will bring trouble to the tomb buyer and cause losses.

(2) Convenient geographical location. There is a custom of sweeping graves in Qingming among the people. When a family goes out to visit the grave to worship their ancestors, they must first consider the convenience of travel. The road is too far and the traffic is inconvenient, which will make sweeping graves time-consuming and tiring. You can generally choose to live in the suburbs. Take Shanghai as an example. Since the 1980s, the municipal government has approved the construction of some cemeteries in the suburbs to solve the problem of difficult burial of ashes, and now they have made great progress. For example, Binhai Ancient Garden, Xu Jing West Garden, Weijiajiao Rest Garden, Dianshan Lake Guiyuan and Zhuanqiao Sleeping Garden are all well-known cemeteries in Shanghai. These cemeteries have agencies in urban areas, and there are free buses to buy tombs. Usually, the traffic for sweeping graves is also very convenient: there is a shuttle bus on weekends, and there is a shuttle bus to and from the cemetery from morning till night during Qingming winter. Shanghai residents don't have to go to other places to bury their relatives as before, but they can get convenient and thoughtful service in this city.

(3) Choose according to the architectural style of the cemetery. There are many cemeteries now, and the landscape and architectural style are different. Some are on the mountains, others are by the water. Some are China gardens, such as Binhai Ancient Garden and Dianshan Lake Guiyuan. The scenery in the park is natural and smooth, quiet and elegant. After more than ten years of development, it has become a garden unit with clean roads, towering trees and rockery pavilions in Shanghai. Some are European-style, such as Jingxi Garden, tall French castle-style gatehouse, large fountains with extraordinary momentum, magnificent Roman architectural corridors, elegant statues of Greek mythological figures and so on. A good cemetery has a beautiful environment, surrounded by green trees, strict management and complete services. You may wish to visit the funeral home on the spot and choose according to your own wishes.

Choose a grave style

After the cemetery is selected, the style of the grave should also be selected. There are single points, double points and three points in the tomb. The single hole was buried by the deceased alone, and the area did not exceed 1.5 square meters. The double cave is generally buried by husband and wife, covering an area of no more than 3 square meters. Three points are generally buried in families, with an area of no more than 4.5 square meters. There are many kinds of stones used in graves, with different textures and patterns. Different stone textures, carving techniques, sizes and geographical locations form different artistic styles and selling prices. The price of an ordinary single-hole tomb is about 1500-4000 yuan. Double points are around 4000-8000 yuan. Art tombs are expensive and are generally negotiated by consumers and cemetery operators. Some cemeteries have good environment, complete infrastructure, smooth roads and naturally higher prices; And some relatively simple cemeteries and graves are also cheaper. In the same cemetery, the graves on both sides of the road are more convenient and more expensive than other graves.

Types and styles of ordinary tombs

Ordinary tombs are the most common, that is, the ground is paved with slate, the tomb is in the middle, the stone tablet is built behind the tomb, and the back and sides are surrounded by slate, which becomes a semi-closed cemetery. People saw rows of barracks-style graves.

Lawn wood

Lawn tombs do not plant tombstones, do not surround cemeteries, and directly bury sarcophagus underground. The sarcophagus is covered with a stone tablet, which is slightly higher than the ground, engraved with inscriptions and surrounded by green grass. The whole cemetery looks like green grass.

Grave art

Many art tombs are specially designed according to the life of the deceased. They are very artistic and personalized, with high cultural taste, which fully embodies the affection of family members and the ingenuity of designers. For example, the tombs of artists Bai Yang and Jiang Junchao in Binhai Ancient Garden symbolize the stage with a rectangular platform and a large piece of white marble as the background, implying a screen; The tombstone of music educators Fan Jisen and Fan is a piano. Use "an open book" to summarize the life of intellectuals and so on. The art tombs are distinctive and thought-provoking, and are welcomed by undertaker. Therefore, as long as the bereaved family requests, the cemetery will be designed by professional designers.

Plaice

As the name implies, the tomb on the wall is the tomb buried on the rock wall, and there is also a name called Tower Tomb, which appears in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan. With the reform and opening up, it is gradually accepted by everyone. Its advantages are saving land use space, centralized management of funeral affairs and convenient funeral treatment.

Historical significance

The Ming Tombs.

Tomb research is a research field to explore social customs and religious behavior concepts based on archaeological unearthed tomb materials and documents. Therefore, the study of tombs is closely related to people's view of death and the world after death.

Because life and death are problems that every society must face. Regardless of ancient and modern society, the death of a member often implies its threat to the whole society. Therefore, the issue of life and death has not only social significance, but also religious significance.

In ancient society, because people's life span was generally quite short, death was a frequent occurrence in daily life. The universal custom of human beings will help the deceased leave the society of the living and enter another world through the implementation of a set of funeral ceremonies after the death of a social member. And we can also spy out the characteristics of religious belief in this society from the attitude of strangers towards the dead and facing death.

Funeral system usually includes funeral ceremony and burial. A set of ceremonies held by the living for the dead to end his relationship with this world and ensure or guide the dead into another world; Bury the body of the deceased in a way that the living see fit.

Funeral is a continuation of funeral. In many cultures, there are sacrifices after funeral, and the living try to communicate with the dead. Since China people have always been cautious about funerals, human beings can actually use tomb materials to discuss the religious and social phenomena in ancient China. When discussing the tomb system in pre-Qin and Han dynasties, there are usually two key points, one is the development of the tomb system, and the other is the hierarchical system of the tomb system.

The former can explore the social concept of the afterlife world through the architectural form of tombs, while the latter shows that tombs can reflect funeral etiquette based on social class. Ceng Zi once said, "Be cautious in the end, and people's morality should be valued", which is not only his personal expectation, but also reflects the important position of funeral ceremony in the society at that time.

The importance attached to funeral in China's history can be seen at least from the existence of Shang King's tomb. During the Spring and Autumn Period, the emergence of tombs and funeral systems can be used as a sign that people in that society attach importance to funeral.

During the Warring States period, although there were some remarks about thin burial, these opinions just showed that thick burial was the general trend of the whole society. This is not to say that all archaeological excavations are thick burials. On the other hand, even if ordinary people are actually unable to be reburied, they still have the desire to be reburied, which just explains the important reason why ordinary tombs have used pottery funerary objects in an advanced position since the Warring States period.