Outline of comprehensive review of earth science.

Review the outline at the end of the first year of science.

Chapter I Introduction to Science

1. Science is the study of various phenomena and the search for their answers. For example, everyone is familiar with Newton's discovery of gravity, Watt's invention of the steam engine and so on. It can be said that science is not far away from us, but it is around us.

2. Learn scientific methods and objectives: observe more, think more, experiment more, use scientific methods and knowledge to promote social progress, coordinate the relationship between man and nature, and create a better life for mankind.

Experiment is the most important link in scientific research. When doing experiments, you must abide by the rules and regulations of the laboratory, pay attention to safety, and be familiar with the use and usage of each instrument.

4. Put raw eggs in a beaker filled with clear water, and the eggs will sink. Put more salt in the beaker. After stirring, the salt will dissolve, and the raw eggs will float and finally float.

5. Measurement is the process of comparing the quantity to be measured with the recognized standard quantity. To measure the length of an object, we must first make clear the standard of length, that is, the length unit, and then choose the appropriate unit to measure.

6. The main unit of length is meter, the big one is kilometer, and the small one is decimeter and centimeter.

The scale is a commonly used length measuring tool.

7. For objects with regular shapes, such as cubes and cuboids, you can measure its side length with a scale, and then calculate its volume.

Measuring cylinders are usually used to measure the volume of liquids.

8. How to use the measuring cylinder: First, see its measuring range, range and minimum scale clearly. When measuring liquid, keep the line of sight level with the lowest center of concave liquid level.

9. For irregular objects that are insoluble in water and do not absorb water, the measurement method can immerse them in water, and the difference between the two readings is the volume of the object.

10. Temperature indicates how hot or cold an object is. Usually, when we say it is really hot or cold today, we mean whether the temperature is high or low today.

1 1. Mercury is usually used in laboratories.

_ Thermometer, alcohol thermometer, etc. It is made according to the characteristics of liquid expanding when heated and contracting when cooled. The commonly used degree of day is degrees Celsius, expressed in degrees Celsius. It is stipulated that the temperature of ice-water mixture is set to 0℃, and the temperature when water boils at standard atmospheric pressure is set to 100, which is divided into 100 equal parts between 0- 100, and each equal part represents one part.

12. Use of liquid thermometer: Before use, observe the range of thermometer, and never use it to measure the temperature beyond the range of thermometer. When measuring, hold the upper end of the thermometer by hand, so that the glass bulb of the thermometer can fully contact with the measured object. If the temperature of the liquid is measured, make the glass bubble completely immersed in the liquid, but don't touch the wall and bottom of the container. When measuring, wait until the mercury column of the thermometer stops rising or falling, and then read. When reading, the thermometer cannot leave the measured object. When reading, keep your eyes level with the liquid level in the thermometer. When recording readings, the numbers and units should be written completely, and pay attention to whether the units and estimated values are missing.

13. Quality refers to the quantity of substances contained in an object. The mass unit of an object is kilogram, which is represented by the symbol kg. The larger units are tons, and the smaller units are grams and milligrams.

14. Quality is an attribute of the object itself, and its size is completely determined by the object itself. Changing the shape, temperature, state, position and space of an object will not change its size.

15. Days are usually used to measure the mass of objects in the laboratory, and the common one is the pallet balance.

16. Use of pallet balance: (1) Move the travel code to the zero scale line and place the balance horizontally. (2) Adjust the balance with the balance nut.

(3) Put the object on the left panel and the weight on the right panel, first enlarge the weight, then add the small weight, and finally move the code _.

(4) Reading: add the total mass of the weights in the plate+the mass value indicated by the traveling code. (5) After weighing, put the weights back into the weight box one by one with tweezers.

17. In nature, any movement can be used as a standard to measure time. For example, the sundial was invented according to the pendulum principle, and the pendulum works according to the pendulum principle. (Don't do this)

18. The steps of scientific inquiry are (1) asking questions (2) establishing hypotheses (3) designing experimental schemes (4) collecting factual evidence (5) testing hypotheses (6) communicating and evaluating.

Chapter II Biological Observation

1. The fundamental difference between living things and nonliving things is whether there is life or not. Life is a living object, which has the characteristics of responding to stimuli, absorbing nutrients, reproducing offspring, growing, adapting to and influencing the environment, heredity and variation.

2. The main basis for judging animals and plants: first, whether organisms are environmentally friendly, and second, whether they need to absorb nutrients from the outside.

3. The main difference between vertebrates and invertebrates is whether there is a spine. The fundamental difference between angiosperms and gymnosperms is that there is a fruitless capsule outside the seed and an ovary capsule outside the ovule.

4. In the animal kingdom, vertebrates are the most widely distributed and tallest animals; The group with the largest number of species and individuals is insects, and the lowest animal is protozoa.

5. In the plant kingdom, the tallest plant is angiosperm, and the lowest plant is algae. Angiosperms and gymnosperms can reproduce their offspring with seeds.

6. The main characteristics and representative animals of vertebrates. (The form cannot be displayed. See the email. )

7. The main characteristics of insects are: the body is divided into three parts: the chest and the abdomen. The head has tentacles, eyes and mouthparts. The chest generally has two pairs of wings and three pairs of feet. The body, tentacles and feet are segmented.

8. Plants with roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are angiosperms, also known as green flowering plants; Plants with roots, stems, leaves, seeds, no flowers and no fruits are gymnosperms; Plants with only roots, stems and leaves are ferns; Plants with only stems and leaves are _ bryophytes; Plants whose organisms are directly composed of single cells or multi-cells are algae (without roots, stems, leaves and other organs).

9. The seven levels of hierarchical classification are phylum, family, genus and species, among which species is the basic unit of hierarchical classification.

10. The main structure of a magnifying glass is a lens. When it is used, it should face the observed object. A magnifying glass can form an enlarged upright virtual image.

1 1. Structure and use of microscope;

(1) Operating steps when using: a. Take and put: hold the mirror arm with one hand and the mirror base with the other hand, and put it in a slightly left position in front of the body.

B. Installing the lens: take out the objective lens from the lens box and install it on the conversion table, and take out the eyepiece and install it on the lens barrel.

C aiming: rotate the objective lens converter to aim the objective lens at the light hole, rotate the light collector, select the appropriate aperture, observe the eyepiece with the left eye, and rotate the reflector by hand. When a bright circular field of vision is observed, aiming is completed.

D. Observation: put the objective plate on the objective table, aim the observed object at the center of the light hole, and press the objective plate with a flat clamp. Look at the objective lens and turn the coarse focusing screw forward to make the objective lens and the loading plate close. Look at the eyepiece, turn the coarse focusing screw backward, the lens barrel rises, and stop when a blurred object is observed. Turn the fine focus screw with both hands until the image of the object is clear.

E. image offset: move the film in the opposite direction.

(2) Magnification: the product of eyepiece and objective lens.

12. Structure of organism: cell → tissue → organ → system → whole organism.

13. Cells are the basic units of organisms. According to the number of cells that make up organisms, they can be divided into single-celled organisms and multicellular organisms. Single-celled organisms are characterized by tiny individuals, and all life activities are completed in one cell.

14. The fundamental difference between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells lies in whether there is a nucleus in the cell.

15. The main structure of a cell consists of three parts: cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. Among them, the cell membrane can control the entry and exit of substances and has a protective effect; The genetic material is the nucleus, and the main place of life activity is the cytoplasm.

16. The different structures of plant cells and animal cells include cell wall, vacuole and chloroplast, among which cell wall is the main difference between animal cells and plant cells.

17. Tissue: (1) Definition: Cell groups with similar morphology and the same function are called tissues.

(2) The four major tissues in animals are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nerve tissue, among which connective tissue is the most widely distributed tissue.

(1) The tissues in plants include vegetative tissues, conducting tissues and meristems.

(2) The reason of organism growth is the result of cell division, growth and differentiation. The most remarkable feature of cell division is the appearance of chromosomes, and the reason for producing different tissues is the result of cell differentiation.

18. Bacteria and fungi: microorganisms.

Bacteria: unicellular organisms, including cocci, bacilli and spirillus.

Fungi: the structure of yeast. Edible fungi are composed of underground and aboveground parts. The edible part of edible fungi is formed by hyphae on the ground. (Exemption)

Chapter III The Earth and the Universe

1. The earth is a sphere with slightly protruding equator and slightly flattened poles. The equatorial radius of the earth is 6378 km, and the radius of the poles is about 2 1km shorter than the equatorial radius, with a difference of only 0.33%.

2. The globe is a miniature model of the earth. The latitude and longitude network divides the earth into several parts, and the geographical position of any point on the surface of the earth can be determined. The equator divides the earth into the north and south hemispheres, and the west longitude 20 and the east longitude 160 divide the earth into the east and west hemispheres.

Maps use different symbols and colors to show reduced geographical things on paper. The three elements of a map are legend, direction and scale.

3. The sun is a gas sphere, which can glow by itself. Its diameter is about 109 times that of the earth, and its surface temperature is about 6000℃. Sunspots are the main signs of solar activity.

The moon is the satellite of the earth, and its radius is one quarter of that of radius of the earth.

5. Constellation is to divide the whole day into several areas, which are called constellations. The famous areas are Ursa Major, Ursa Minor and Cassiopeia. Ursa Major can be seen all year round.

6. The center of the solar system is the sun, and planets, asteroids, satellites, comets and other celestial bodies revolve around the sun in a certain orbit. The average distance between the sun and the earth is about1.500 million kilometers.

There are more than 200 billion sun-like stars in the Milky Way, and all the galaxies make up the universe.

8. Moon phase (1) The moon can't shine like the earth. The sun always illuminates half the moon, so the various forms of the moon we see are called moon phases.

(2) The principle of moon phase formation: A. The moon can't shine, but reflects sunlight to shine.

B It is precisely because of the regular relative motion of the sun, the earth and the moon that their relative positions change regularly, so the shape of the moon seen on the earth also changes regularly.

(3) When the first quarter moon and the second quarter moon appear in the current phase, the positions of the sun, the earth and the moon are vertical; When you see the new moon and the full moon, the sun, the earth and the moon are in a straight line.

(4) The new moon appears on the first day of each lunar month, the full moon and the eclipse appear on 15 and 16, the first quarter moon appears on the 7th and 8th, and the last quarter moon appears on the 22nd and 23rd.

(5) From the new moon to the full moon and then to the new moon, it is a cycle of the moon's phase change, with an average of 29.53 days, which is called the new moon.

1 1. Solar and lunar eclipses

(1) Somewhere on the earth, the surface of the sun is sometimes completely or partially covered, which is called a solar eclipse.

(2) Total solar eclipse: A total solar eclipse occurs when the moon blocks all the surface of the sun. A partial solar eclipse occurs when the moon blocks one side of the sun's surface. When the moon blocks the middle part of the sun's surface, an annular eclipse will occur.

(3) The order of different stages in the process of total solar eclipse is that the sun is covered by the moon from the western edge to the eastern edge of sun gear. The reason: the revolution of the moon from west to east.

(4) During the eclipse, the moon is not completely black, but dark bronze, which is caused by the reflected light of the earth. When the ocean faces the moon, the moon appears; when the land faces the moon, the moon appears. (Exemption)

(5) The moon itself does not shine. The sun, the earth and the moon are on the same straight line, and the moon is on the other side of the sun and the earth. When the moon is gradually covered by the shadow of the earth, an eclipse occurs.

Chapter IV Characteristics of Matter

1。 Solids can be divided into two categories because of their different melting characteristics. One is called crystal: it has a certain melting point. Such as sodium thiosulfate, alum, metal, gypsum, crystal, etc. The other is called amorphous: it has no certain melting point. Such as rosin, glass, beeswax, rubber, plastic, etc.

2。 Melting point is the temperature at which crystals melt, which is one of the characteristics of crystals. Different crystals have different melting points, and the melting point of ice is 0℃. The melting point of sodium thiosulfate is 48℃. Tungsten has the highest melting point among metals. Amorphous crystals have no melting point.

3。 Solidification is the reverse process of melting. All liquids give off heat when they solidify.

4. There are two ways of liquid vaporization: evaporation and boiling, both of which absorb heat. Evaporation can be carried out at any temperature, and the factors affecting evaporation speed are: the surface area of liquid,

The temperature of the liquid rises and falls, and the air on the surface of the liquid flows quickly. Evaporation can be used as a refrigerant to lower the temperature. Boiling is only carried out at a certain temperature (boiling point), and the boiling point remains unchanged. The boiling conditions are: the temperature reaches the boiling point; Continue to absorb heat Different liquids have different boiling points.

5. Liquefaction of gas is the reverse process of liquid vaporization, also called condensation. Heat will be released. There are two ways to liquefy gas: lowering the temperature and compressing the volume. In fact, the phenomena such as "white gas" we see are all formed by the liquefaction of water vapor.

6. Sublimation and sublimation are state transitions between solid and gas. Sublimation absorbs heat.

7. Molecules are particles that make up matter. There are gaps between molecules, and molecules move endlessly and irregularly. The gap between molecules and the movement of molecules are the reasons for the diffusion of substances. Solids, liquids and gases can all diffuse, but they diffuse fastest in gases. The diffusion speed of molecules is also related to temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion.

8. Under certain conditions, the solubility of substances in liquid is limited, and different substances have different solubility. The solubility of a substance is determined by its own properties, and it will also change with the change of temperature and other conditions.

9. The acidity and alkalinity of substances is one of the chemical properties of substances, and the acidity and alkalinity of different substances are different. Purple litmus is used to determine acidic and alkaline substances. The acidity and alkalinity of a substance can be determined by PH test paper. The range of PH value is 0- 14, and the lower the pH value, the stronger the acidity of the substance. The higher the PH value, the stronger the alkalinity of the substance.

The determination method is: immerse a clean glass rod in the solution to be tested, drop it on the pH test paper, compare the color displayed on the test paper with the standard colorimetric card, and determine the pH value of the solution to be tested from the closest color.

10. Changes in substances can be divided into physical changes and chemical changes. The difference between the two changes is whether other substances are produced in the process of change, and chemical changes are accompanied by physical changes. The properties of matter can be divided into physical properties and chemical properties, and chemical properties can only be expressed in chemical changes.

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